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THE SCHOOL KITCHE 
TEXTBOOK 

LESSONS IN COOKING AN 
DOMESTIC SCIENCE 



MARY J. LINCOLN 



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THE SCHOOL KITCHEN 
TEXTBOOK 



LESSONS IN COOKING AND DOMESTIC SCIENCE 
FOR THE USE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



J 



BY 



MARY J. LINCOLN 

AUTHOR OF '* THE BOSTON COOK BOOK " 



ILLUSTBATED 



NON'REFERT 




PQI^VAD*Q3S 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BEOWN, AND COMPANY 

1915 



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Copyright, 1915, 
By Mary J. Lincoln. 



All rights reserved 



APR 12 1915 



Set up and electrotyped by J. S. Gushing Co., Norwood, Mass. , U.S.A. 
Presswork by S. J. Parkhill & Co. , Boston, Mass. , U . S.A. 

©CI.Ay97506 



THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 

TO 

BEGINNERS IN THE STUDY OF COOKEEY 

WITH THE HOPE THAT IT WILL 

INSPIRE THEM WITH ENTHUSIASM FOR FURTHER 

KNOWLEDGE AND AN APPRECIATION 

OF THE 

DIGNITY OF HOME KEEPING 



PREFACE 

When the author's Boston School Kitchen Text-Book 
was written in 1887, instruction in cooking in the public 
schools of America was in the experimental stage, the only 
work which had been done being in a Boston schoolroom 
under philanthropic management. At the request of the 
founder of this experimental school the Boston School 
Kitchen Text-Book was written to show that an econom- 
ical course of study and practice in cookery could be ar- 
ranged for the public schools. At that time there were 
practically no schools for the training of teachers of cook- 
ery and the literature of the subject was almost non-exist- 
ent. The book, therefore, was designed to aid the teacher 
as well as the pupil and that it has accomplished this double 
purpose has been proved by its use in the many cooking 
courses now established in this country, as well as abroad. 

For some time a revision of the Boston School Kitchen 
Text-Book has been demanded to meet the requirements of 
the new era of school instruction and of housework, for we 
now find public school instruction in cooking and sewing in 
the schools of all sections ; training schools and colleges for 
teachers ; a literature worked out by scientists, and a wide 
public demand for such vocational instruction. The pres- 
ent volume is not a revision of the Boston School Kitchen 
Text-Book ; it is a new book embodying the results of sci- 
entific investigation and research, as well as the experience 
of successful teachers in the schools. 

The main food groups, the processes of cookery, the sim- 
pler chemical elements and their action are discussed with 
special reference to elementary work both in the home and 
the school. Many recipes are given so that it is possible 
for the teacher to select one to illustrate the principle con- 
tained in any lesson. Great emphasis has been placed upon 

V 



VI PREFACE 

the housekeeping lessons which are designed to follow along 
and supplement the actual work in cookery. 

Every effort has been made to make the work practical 
and as easy for the teacher as possible. The lessons are 
so arranged as to take up the foods at the time when they 
can be procured most easily for the school work or would 
be naturally available in the home. 

Special attention has been paid to the latest educational 
movement to combine the interests of the home and school 
in the system of " School Credit for Home Work '^, which 
originated in Oregon and which has now spread to all the 
states. 

Boys as well as girls are awaking to the fact that " doing 
chores for father '' or " helping mother with the housework ^^ 
has a definite value, and will be credited on their school 
record, as surely as their work in their studies. 

It has been found perfectly feasible to teach pupils the 
fundamental principles of cooking, hygiene, cleanliness, and 
many of the household duties, in schools where little or no 
equipment for practice work is possible and where teachers 
have had no special training along these lines. The method 
is as follows : — 

The lesson is read from the Textbook ; . the principles 
discussed, and the recipe selected from those bearing on 
the lesson. 

Under direction of the teacher, the pupil takes the recipe 
home and prepares the food according to the directions in 
the book, with advice, but no assistance, from her mother. 

The pupil brings to school in her luncheon a part of this 
prepared food and exhibits it to the teacher together with 
the following certificate, or a similar one, signed by the 
mother : — 

This certifies that has prepared Kecipe Ko. 

according to directions in the " School Kitchen Textbook ", 
with advice from me but no active help, and the food ex- 
hibited is a part of that preparation. * 

Eemarks : — 

Signed ; 



PREFACE VU 

By this method the time for recitation is reduced to about 
one fourth of what is required when the cooking is done at 
the school. 

Similar certificates are given by the mother for time 
spent in the home work, in sewing, and in acquiring im- 
proved habits in hygiene and cleanliness. 

Throughout the book it has constantly been borne in 
mind that the students who will use it in their work are 
not trained scientists but the future home-makers, who will 
need definite and concrete methods and directions so that 
the practical character of their instruction will stimulate 
their interest and thus help to overcome the " leaving 
school" problem. It is also believed that the method of 
presentation of the material and the untechnical discussion 
will appeal to and aid many of the mothers as the home 
work is done. 

March, 1915, 



CONTENTS 



PA6K 

Preface v 



INTEODUCTION 

CHAPTER 

I. Cleaning and Housework 1 

II. Sweeping and Dusting 7 

III. Daily Cake of Rooms 11 

lY. House Cleaning 18 

V. Dish Washing 21 

VI. Care of Refrigerator, Pantry, and Garbage . 28 

VII. Washing Clothes . . . . . . .32 

VIII. Heat and Fuel 35 

IX. Fires 39 

X. Cooking by Gas 42 

XL Stoves and Ranges 45 

XII. Wood Fires 49 

Xin. The Fireless Cooker 51 

XIV. Oil Stoves, Lamps, Chafing Dishes, and Electricity 54 

XV. Laying the Table 59 

XVI. Waiting on the Table 62 

XVII. Table Manners 65 

XVIII. The Care of Food 68 

XIX. Kitchen Equipment 72 

XX. Preparatory Work 77 

ix 



X 



CONTENTS 



LESSON 
I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

' XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 



I. 
II. 



PART I 

PAGB 

Food . 83 

Food Stuffs 86 

Proportion of Food Stuffs in Daily Meals . 90 

Natural Foods 95 

Canning and Preserving . . . . .99 

Fruits 104 

Cooking 108 

Water . . . 112 

Milk 119 

Milk Products 123 

Experiment with Starch ..... 126 

Rice 129 

Experiment with Albumin of Eggs . . . 133 
Steaming, and Other Forms of Cooking in Boil- 
ing Water 136 

Toast . .141 

Fats . 143 

Shell-Fish 147 

Potatoes ......... 151 

Experiment with Albumin in Meat . . . 166 

Poultry 158 

First Lesson in Dough 162 

How to Plan and Prepare a Breakfast . . 167 

Vegetables 171 

Vegetables ........ 173 

Vegetable Soups ....... 178 

Macaroni 182 

Dried Peas and Beans 184 

Afternoon Tea ....... 186 

Corn 188 

PART II 

Baking Powder Biscuit and Variations . . 193 

Broiling .»,,,,,,. 1% 



CONTENTS XI 

LESSON PAGE 

III. Pan Broiling ........ 199 

IV. Cooking Meat in Water 202 

V. Left Overs 205 

YI. Pastry 210 

VII. Pies with Two Crusts 213 

VIII. Baked Meat (in Water) 215 

IX. Stews 220 

X. Meat 227 

XI. Soups .231 

XII. Keview of Soups 235 

XIII. Batters 236 

XIV. Eeview of Batters . 240 

XV. Thicker Batters or Doughs to be Dropped . 242 

XVI. Doughs to be Rolled 248 

XVII. Frying Doughs 250 

XVIII. Eeview of Doughs . 253 

XIX. Bread 255 

XX. The Heat for Baking 258 

XXI. Review of Bread , 262 

XXII. Eish 263 

XXIII. Boiled Fish 266 

XXIV. Eggs . . . . . • . . . .268 
XXV. Cake Making and Baking 271 

XXVI. Lobsters 275 

XXVII. Food for Invalids 278 

XXVIII. Food for Invalids, — Continued .... 281 

XXIX. Early Vegetables .283 

XXX. Additional Recipes . 287 

Appendix A. Seasonable, well balanced Meals for the 

Family Table 293 

Appendix B. Home Sewing ....... 295 

References • . • . . 299 

Index 301 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER I 

CLEANING AND HOUSEWORK 

Section I 
Air and Ventilation 

Air. If we consider food in its largest sense as " anything 
taken into the system to support Hfe/' it must include air 
and water as well as what we commonly term solid food. 
Of these three essentials to life, air is the most important; 
we can live a short time without food or water, but only a 
few minutes without air. 

Air is a mixture of two invisible gases, one part oxygen 
and four parts nitrogen. 

Oxygen is a colorless, tasteless gas, which unites readily 
with other elements. At a low temperature it causes iron to 
rust and wood to decay, and changes or decomposes all vege- 
table and animal substances, producing slow combustion. 
At a high temperature it combines with the elements hydro- 
gen and carbon and produces fire. If the air were all oxygen 
everything would be consumed by burning ; but it is diluted 
with four parts of nitrogen, — an invisible, incombustible gas, 
which does not unite readily with other elements, and this 
makes the air sufficiently mild for us to breathe. 

Air also contains water vapor and carbon dioxide, — a 
heavy, colorless, incombustible gas, composed of one part 
carbon and two parts oxygen. 

1 



2 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Carbon exists as an element only in solid form, as the graph- 
ite in our lead pencils and the gem known as the diamond. 
But in combination with other elements it is everywhere pres- 
ent, in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. 

As a solid it is found in all animal and vegetable substances 
such as the meat, bread, vegetables, and the like which we 
eat and make into body tissues, and the wood and coal which 
we burn. 

As a liquid we have it in the oil on our salads, the sweet 
juices of fruits, the cream in milk, and also in medicinal oil. 

As a gas we take it in pure drinking water, and in larger 
proportions in soda water and other effervescing beverages; 
also in the bread and cakes which are made light by its use. 
In these forms its effects on the stomach are wholesome. 
But its principal gaseous form is in the air we breathe, where 
it has been produced by our own respiration and that of all 
living animals, and also by the decay of all organic matter. 

We breathe in oxygen from the air and also carbon dioxide ; 
but when this carbon dioxide is diluted in the right proportion, 
as it is in the pure out-of-door air, its effects on our lungs are 
harmless. Because out of doors the plants, when in the sun- 
light, take in through their leaves the carbon dioxide which 
we have breathed out and they convert it into plant tissue. 
This helps to make the out-of-door air purer than that in- 
doors. The oxygen, which we breathe in, unites with the 
carbon in our blood, producing heat to keep us warm, and 
carbon dioxide which we must get rid of as quickly as pos- 
sible, by deep, full breathing. When there is an excess of 
it in the air, it is difficult for us to breathe. When there is 
more than a certain amount, we faint or suffocate. In the 
house this carbon dioxide which we breathe out remains in 
the rooms, and unless there is a constant supply of fresh air 
coming in, sufficient to blow this bad air away from us, we 
feel uncomfortable ; our lungs are hungry for more oxygen. 
When many persons are in a small, close room, or lamps and 
gas lights are giving out carbon dioxide, the air soon becomes 
dangerous to breathe. 

In some places air contains noxious gases, and everywhere 
there are floating particles of earthy matter, smoke and soot 



INTRODUCTION 3 

which we can see ; also many very minute forms of life, known 
as germs or microbes, which are invisible except under a 
powerful microscope. 

These floating particles are always in the air and you can 
see them by looking steadily at a ray of sunlight shining into 
the room. They are blown about here and there and are 
seldom motionless, but in the house where there is not suffi- 
cient air to keep them moving, they settle on floors and fur- 
niture where we can see them ; also on walls and many places 
where they are not visible : making what is usually called 
dust. 

Many of these dust germs, if they are in a warm moist 
place, can produce other tiny plants some of which are useful 
and help us in the changes which cooking produces in food. 
Yeast which we use in bread making is one variety of these 
useful plants. Mold on bread is an objectionable variety. 

Other germs are poisonous, and if we are weak, ill-fed, or 
have not sufficient oxygen in our blood to destroy these 
germs when they get into our system, they develop disease. 
Therefore to avoid them we must breathe plenty of pure air, 
keep ourselves and our food clean, and keep the air as clean 
as possible. 

Ventilation. We can improve the air in our rooms in 
several ways. 

First, Open windows so that bad air may get out and 
good air get in at all times and especially at night, and in 
such a way that no one will be exposed to a draft stronger 
than he can bear. One of the most effectual ways is to raise 
the lower sash, put a fitted board under it and then the fresh 
air will come in between the sashes in the middle of the win- 
dow. When the air outside is not very cold, lower the upper 
sash letting out the hot air and raise the lower sash letting 
in the cold air. When it is not practical to have a continuous 
draft of fresh air, give the house an air flushing several times 
a day. Early in the morning, open doors and windows on 
opposite sides if possible, that a great volume of air may blow 
through several rooms at once, which for that brief time need 
not be occupied. Repeat this during the day, always after 
cooking has been done ; also at night before retiring, especially 



4 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

in rooms where lights have consumed much of the oxygen. 
Keep the temperature between 66° and 70° during the day- 
time. 

Second. Destroy or remove all garbage every day. 
Do not allow any decaying animal or vegetable matter, or 
stagnant water to remain in or near the house, especially 
in the cellar. These not only vitiate the air, but draw flies, 
mosquitoes, water bugs, and the like, that may bring in 
disease-producing germs. 

Third. Screen windows and doors and make special effort 
not to let flies get inside or remain if they chance to elude 
your vigilance. 

Fourth. Let in all the sun possible, at least during part 
of the day, for this removes dampness and destroys many 
of the objectionable germs. 

Fifth. Cultivate clean personal habits with all your cloth- 
ing and other belongings; bathe frequently and exercise 
regularly. Keep your food clean by care in its preparation 
and serving, and freedom from dust in its storage places. 
Keep your house and its furnishings clean, by frequent wash- 
ing of all its surfaces exposed to personal contact, by daily 
sunning or airing of beds and draperies, by the regular re- 
moval of household litter, street dirt, etc., and by the most 
effective methods of sweeping and dusting. 

Section II 

Personal Cleanliness 

Dress. The dress for work in the school kitchen or the 
home should be short, simple, and appropriate, preferably 
of washable material. 

An apron to protect the dress is even more necessary in 
the school kitchen than at home, for the school dress, e vCept 
in summer, is usually of woolen material. Many persons 
prefer an apron with a bib and without sleeves ; but one made 
to button in the back just below the collar, and with long, 
loose sleeves and large enough to come well around the hips, 
is much more comfortable and sensible. 



INTRODUCTION ' 5 

The belt should have a hand towel fastened at the left side, 
and a holder suspended on the right side by a tape of con- 
venient length. 

Something over the hair (not a mere bow) which is 
large enough to prevent loose hairs from falling, is needed, 
and it may be merely a silk net, held in place by an elastic 
cord, if a thicker cap is objectionable. The hair should not 
hang down the back but be drawn up firmly. 

Rings and bracelets should not be w^orn during the lesson. 

Wash the hands thoroughly and see that the nails are 
perfectly clean, before you begin any work, and as often dur- 
ing the lesson as there is need. 

The keen sense of touch in clean, sensitive finger tips, is 
a great help in deciding many points in the manual part of 
cookery, and one loses much if this sensitiveness is lessened 
by grime, or grease, or dough. 

Wiping the hands on the towel at the side will be suffi- 
cient at times, but use water for anything that really adheres. 

Always wipe them before touching any food or dish, and 
form the habit of wiping every dish or utensil before using it 
for food. 

Personal cleanliness, of under and outer clothing, and of 
the entire body is not a fad ; it is a vital matter, and should 
be cultivated until it is as natural as breathing. 

If you have any of the following untidy habits, which have 
been observed among some pupils, strive at once to make 
yourself perfect in this respect : 

Do not use your handkerchief, or apron, in place of a toAvel 
or holder. 

Do not work with sticky or floured fingers, or lick your 
fingers. 

Do not put your hands on your face, or your hair, or use 
your handkerchief at your nose, without immediately wiping 
your hands on your towel. 

Do not use a hand towel as a dish towel, or the hand basin 
for food. 

Do not taste with the mixing spoon. Pour from the mix- 
ing spoon into a tasting spoon. In dipping into any thick 
mixture, wipe the tasting spoon before each using. 



6 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Do not use a sponge in cleaning food. 

Wipe every tool and utensil before using on food and wash 
all that have been exposed to dust or have been used recently. 

Do not leave the spoon in the pan when food is cooking. 

Do not shake food from the spoon by striking on the edge 
of the bowl or pan. It will nick china and crack enamel. 
If a strong shake, without contact with the pan, does not 
dislodge it, remove with a knife. 



CHAPTER II 
SWEEPING AND DUSTING 

The dress for home kitchen work should be comfortable 
in style and of washable material. The skirt should be 
plain and short, and the sleeves large enough to be easy over 
the elbow. Cuffs and bands are in the way and if turned 
back soon become mussy. Make the sleeve with one seam 
nearly straight and the same width at the wrist as above 
the elbow ; finish the edge with a half -inch hem. Then when 
at work you may turn the bottom over and up as far as you 
wish. It will fit smoothly if turned back evenly, will stay 
at any height without pinning, and will not bind the arm. 
When your work is done, it will be smooth and clean. 

Protect the hair with a sweeping-cap of thin material. A 
large pocket handkerchief with a half -inch hem, folded down 
the middle and sewed at the upper end, may be slightly fitted 
to the head by box plaits on each side about five inches from 
the top and at the back of the neck. Turn the lower corners 
over diagonally and catch at the point. It fits over the hair 
in sunbonnet-style, is light, easily washed, and cooler than a 
close cap. 

Sweeping. Put away or cover all food before beginning 
to sweep the kitchen and pantry. Brush off the stove and 
around it, dust window sills and shelves, and put away all 
things not belonging in the room. Use a short-handled, bristle 
or twine brush in the corners, mop-boards, and ledges, and 
wipe the walls with a long brush. Sweep with a bristle 
brush or a broom ; hold it close to the floor, taking the dirt 
along with short strokes, instead of tossing it into the air. 
Sweep toward the centre and go back frequently to catch 
any fluff that may have blown back. Brush the dirt into a 

7 



8 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

dust pan and burn it at once, if possible, opening the pipe 
damper that the odor may go up the chimney. If you use 
a gas stove turn the sweepings into the refuse pail, not the 
garbage pail but the covered pail for papers and other dry 
refuse. 

Floors that are carpeted all over, or with large rugs that 
cannot be moved easily, may be cleaned daily, or when dusty, 
with a carpet sweeper. 

This takes up the dust without scattering it, provided the 
brush in the sweeper is clean, and makes the weekly sweeping 
much easier. This brush should be washed frequently. 

Go over the bare places between rugs with a dry mop, 
using a short-handled twine-mop for corners and under 
desks, bookcases, and radiators. 

Then go over rugs with a carpet sweeper, pushing it with 
the nap of the rug. 

For a thorough sweeping of a carpet where more or less dust 
is unavoidable, first dust the small things on the mantels 
and bureaus, lay them on a table, sofa, or bed, and cover them 
with cloths made for this purpose. 

It makes needless work and confusion through the house 
to remove the furniture into other rooms before sweeping. 
If you learn how to sweep without raising much dust and how 
to take up and hold dust, instead of scattering it, you can 
sweep a room without disarranging the furniture. Small 
pieces of furniture may be put together at one end of the 
room, or moved just enough to allow one to sweep around 
where they stood, and be replaced at once. Sweep a small 
place, take up the sweepings with a carpet sweeper and put 
things in place as you go along and if suddenly interrupted 
it will take but a minute to remove all traces of your work. 

Brush any stuffed-chairs with a small corn-broom or bristle- 
brush ; wipe and cover with dust covers, of which one should 
have a full supply made of old sheets, cheap muslin, or 
cheese cloth. Wipe back of pictures with a dust cloth and 
the walls with a bag on a broom or a long-handled wall broom. 
Take things in turn as you go around the room from the 
highest to the lowest; fold the dust into the duster and 
thus avoid scattering it. 



SWEEPING AND DUSTING 9 

Close the doors into other rooms and the windows, if the 
wind blows into the room. Shake out the curtains and 
draperies and brush the screens. 

When all the little things are out of the way and there is 
no more dust to fall on the carpet you are ready to sweep. 
Do not use wet tea leaves on the carpet, for they stain the 
light places and one could never have enough of them ; wet 
meal makes more hard work; a dampened broom answers 
for a small rug, but for a large rug or carpet there is nothing 
better than wet newspaper. But it should not be torn into 
tiny pieces, as is the usual custom. Tear several papers in 
half sheets, lay them in water and crumple just enough to 
squeeze out the water until it no longer drips. Then open 
the sheets and lay them lightly along the end where the sweep- 
ing is to begin, a few inches from the edge. Do not lay them 
flat but so they will stand up slightly, making a wall of 
damp paper that covers a strip at least a foot wide and against 
which the dust will lodge as you sweep. Begin at one end 
and sweep with a short, bearing-down, hard stroke; then 
turn and in going back sweep the paper along with the dust. 
The paper will catch and hold nearly all of it, and if the 
paper is covered thickly, put down a fresh layer. With a 
large rug, sweep clear to the end the way of the wool, but 
with a carpet sweep from the sides to the middle, laying the 
wet paper round all the edges when beginning. 

Collect the sweepings and look for any straggling bits of 
fluff ; open the windows, and when the dust is settled, go 
round again with a fresh duster. 

Damp the cloth slightly, except for highly polished surfaces, 
and change to a clean cloth when the first is grimy. Several 
cloths are required to do an entire room. 

Shaking the duster removes the fluff but not the grime, 
and should not be done anywhere. If shaken out of the 
window the chances , are that more dust blows back than 
goes out. Washing is the only way to remove it from the 
cloth. 

Use old soft silk, muslin, or any material that will not 
shed lint. It is seldom necessary to buy a duster, for there 
should be enough suitable material in the house. Dusters 



10 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

of mercerized cotton flannel are suitable if you have to buy, 
for they are easily washed. 

Wash the hands frequently during the work, — always be- 
fore handling books. Put things back into their places and 
give a finishing touch wherever needed. 



CHAPTER III 

Section I 

The Care of Bedrooms 

If possible have the bed placed where all parts may be 
reached easily without moving the bedstead ; but if it must 
be in a corner, draw it away from the wall at night. 

Whether the mattress shall be of the best long curled-hair, 
or short hair, or cotton or excelsior with a thin layer of hair, 
will depend upon the purse. But whichever kind you have, 
the part that depends upon you is to keep the ticking clean. 

If possible a mattress should be made so that it may be 
handled easily, especially if young girls are to do the bed- 
making. 

A mattress made in one part is too heavy even for a strong 
woman to lift or turn over. When made in two parts, one 
square and one narrow, the square part is often too large to 
handle alone and the narrow part gets no wear. 

Experience with mattresses made in three parts of equal 
width, for double-beds and for couches, has shown that the 
labor of bed-making is greatly lessened and that each part of 
the mattress gets an equal amount of wear. 

The width of each part is one-third of the length of the 
bedstead, so they fit in snugly. They can be turned or 
carried about with no effort. Each part should have two 
cases so they may be changed when soiled. The cases are 
made of sheeting, stitched on the sides and one end ; the 
other end is hemmed and left open. These cases are large 
enough to slip on like a pillow case and are caught together 
with short basting stitches, which have proved better than 
buttons or tapes. 

11 



12 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Mattresses should be further protected by a thick pad of 
quilted cotton and a strip of rubber sheeting drawn smoothly 
across the middle. Pillow ticks are protected by using an 
inner case, a little shorter than the outer, and which is 
changed less frequently. 

On rising open the bed at once, pat and shake the pillows 
and put them on a chair near the wdndow, not on the grimy 
window sill. The clothes may be spread out over two chairs 
before the window, or, on damp mornings, near the radiator. 
If space is limited turn them over the foot rail or board, letting 
the ends rest on a chair to keep them from the floor ; or better 
still (as chairs will tip over) keep a box at the foot of the bed- 
stead, with hinged covers and casters, which may be used as 
a seat, or for clothing and extra bedding, or as a couch. 

Do not throw the bedclothes all over together with the 
mattress on top, nor hang them out of the window to flap 
against grimy walls. 

When pressed for time or space to spread out the bedding, 
try this way. 

Stand at the foot of the bed in the middle ; pull the spread 
toward you and take an upper corner in each hand; draw 
it up and out even with the foot board ; then lay the upper 
end back over the board, letting it hang over inside about a 
foot. Make preparations for your bath, or put on slippers 
and bath gown and start the kitchen fire and water for the 
cereal. 

On returning, pull the blanket over in the same way and 
go on with your bath ; after five or ten minutes repeat with 
another blanket, and if you keep this work in mind, before 
you leave the room all the bed clothing will have been opened 
out to the air and yet be out of the way. Then raise each 
part of the mattress up and over toward the head and free 
it entirely from the bedclothes at the foot. See that the 
bedclothes hang down smoothly between the spring and 
foot board and give them a gentle shake that the fluff and lint 
may drop in one place instead of being shaken all about the 
room. 

Before putting on your dress arrange the mattress even 
with the spring, turning it about every other day, put on the 



THE CARE OF BEDROOMS 13 

pad and draw the under sheet up slightly by the top corner 
which is near at hand on the foot board, instead of in a tangle 
on the floor. Tuck it under the mattress at the foot, then 
draw it tight at the top, tuck in, and fold under at the side, 
making a square corner. 

Then don your dress ; put away all toilet articles and 
clothing, and leave your personal belongings in order. The 
bed may be left in this orderly condition for further airing, 
and it will take but a few minutes to finish the work after 
breakfast. If you cannot make it before school time, it 
will do no harm to let it air in this way until noon. 

Occasionally, or daily when practicable, draw the under 
sheet up by the corners towards the middle and shake it in 
the air from a rear veranda or window, leaving it to hang on 
a line until well aired. 

When ready to finish the bed-making draw the top sheet 
over slightly, and be careful to have the middle fold in line 
with the middle of the bedstead. Tuck it in tight at the foot 
first, letting it come under the mattress about eight inches, 
so that it will not pull out at night. Then draw the sheet 
close to the top till smooth and tight. Sheets should be at 
least two-and-three-quarters yards long for then there will 
be half a yard to turn back over the blankets. Three yards 
is a better length for a bed of full size. 

Draw up the blankets singly in the same way, making them 
even and tight at the foot. Some persons prefer that blankets 
be drawn close up to the headboard that they may come well 
over the shoulders and neck ; others want them from four to 
ten inches below the top. When blankets are too short, 
draw the top blanket down enough to tuck in well at the foot, 
or use another sheet between the blanket and the spread to 
hold the blankets in place, as the spread is not tucked in on 
an iron bedstead. It saves labor to cut double blankets in 
two and bind the cut ends. Use a light-weight or dimity 
spread, which may be washed as easily as a sheet and need 
not be removed at night. But if you prefer to remove it, 
that it may not be tumbled, or must use a heavy or fancy 
counterpane, always spread a sheet over the blanket. If 
windows are open all night, as they should be, uncovered 



14 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

blankets will soon become grimy and need frequent cleans- 
ing. 

Draw the spread up to the top and see that it hangs evenly 
all around. Spreads for iron bedsteads should be wide as 
well as long, that they may come a little below the side- 
frame. 

Turn only the upper sheet over at the top and even with 
the edge of the mattress. Shake and pat the pillows until 
smooth and if large, stand them against the headboard, if 
small, lay them flat. 

The important points to remember in bed-making are 
these. 

Sheets and light spreads are easy to wash; blankets, 
mattresses and pillows are hard to wash ; therefore protect 
the latter by suitable covers and frequent air and sun- 
cleansing. 

Never turn back the spread and lie on the blanket ; never 
put newspapers, soiled clothing, travelling bags, or anything 
that is not clean on the blankets. 

' At night let the upper sheet come well over the spread or 
blanket to protect it from the hands and face. 

A bed is made for the comfort of the person occupying it, 
therefore, while in general you should follow established 
methods in making it, learn if possible the preferences of each 
person, and have the blankets few or many, high or low, and 
tucked in or loose, as desired. 

Run the carpet sweeper over the floor daily where needed. 
In the weekly sweeping, brush and wipe the bedstead and 
spring, and then proceed as directed in the preceding lesson. 

Bed Linen. On Saturday or Sunday remove the pillow 
cases and lower sheet, and the upper one also if too soiled 
to use as the under sheet. If a clean lower sheet is used, put 
it on right-side up ; if not, put the soiled upper sheet on right- 
side down that one may lie on the cleaner side. Put the 
clean upper sheet on right-side down, that when it is turned 
over the spread, the hem may be right-side up. 

The wide hem is the top. Beds occupied by restless 
sleepers, or those who work in dusty places, should have 
the linen changed more frequently. 



THE CARE OF BEDROOMS 15 

Spreads are changed when it is necessary ; blankets if hung 
in the sun weekly and used with care, need washing only twice 
a year. 

Bed-time Work. In the evening you may help mother by 
opening the beds or by bringing out the night gowns for the 
younger children. If a guest be with you, remove the extra 
pillows from the bed; also the covers, and anything not 
needed. Fold over the upper bed clothing and turn the 
corners over diagonally; open the windows to change the 
air ; bring in fresh, cold water for drinking, and a pitcher of 
hot water. See that the matches and a candle are on a stand 
near the bed; bath gowns laid out, and any other little 
personal attention given that will be agreeable to the guest. 

When changing your working dress, or undressing at night, 
hang your clothing where it can air a while. Hang waists 
inside out on a chair. Air night gowns and bath robe. 
Never put soiled underwear or damp clothing into the 
closet. Keep the closet clean, fresh, and in order. 

The Care of Wash Stands. Keep a cloth on the towel 
rack for cleaning and wiping the toilet set. Always empty 
the dirty water from the bowl when you finish washing; 
wipe off the grime ; rinse ; add fresh water, and wash and 
wipe the soap, the dish, and the other articles. Do not 
forget to wash out the sediment in the pitcher before filling 
it with fresh water. Empty the jar; wash with cold water; 
rinse with warm suds, and then with clear water. Do not 
use hot water on china ja.rs as it may crack the glaze and odors 
will be absorbed. Wipe and put each article into its proper 
place. Remove soiled towels and use clean linen as needed ; 
with care in washing, towels need not be changed every day. 
Shake them out and hang them in the air or near the radiator 
to dry. Fold once lengthwise and hang them straight on the 
rack. Do not put wet or damp towels, or any damp under- 
wear, into the soiled-clothes hamper. Dry them first and 
thus prevent mildew. 

Girls should not leave this work for mother to do ; it is 
an easy matter to keep the bowl and small articles clean, if 
done at once after they have been used. Nothing makes 
a bedroom so untidy as a disorderly washstand, and nothing 



16 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

betrays lack of home training and of innate refinement so 
much as untidy personal habits. Avoid all carelessness in 
this respect in your daily home life. 



Section II 

Care of the Bathroom 

The cleaning of faucets you will learn about under 
" Cleaning Metals/' but if you have the old-style plumbing 
remember that the chain and basin-stopper should be scoured 
daily; the lint and hair removed from the pipe, and any 
portion of the basin that comes in contact with the water 
be cleaned thoroughly. Wipe out the holes in the overflow 
with a small skewer. Scrub the bath tub, the basin, and 
seat of the toilet ; wash and wipe the soap dishes and glasses, 
and put all toilet articles in order, and as many as possible 
out of sight. Hang damp towels where they may dry, 
and have a special rack for fresh towels where they may be 
found quickly, when needed by guests. 

When all the family use the same bathroom, each one 
should have a rack for towels and a special place for the 
toothbrush and the like, and not use those of another person. 

A set of drawers, or a wall closet where individual articles 
may be kept from the dust, is hygienic as well as convenient. 

Once a week, and more often if necessary, put a hot sal- 
soda solution down the toilet pipe, and when any odor is 
detected use chloride of lime. Let it remain for half an hour 
then scour with a small cotton mop as far down as possible. 
Wash and air the mop and all cloths used in the cleaning. 

How to Use a Bathroom. Children should be shown how 
to use the various appliances. After a bath in the tub, open 
the valve and as the water runs out, wash along the sides 
before the scum settles ; otherwise there will be a dirty 
water mark which, if left to dry on, is hard to remove. Rinse 
and wash all over the tub with clean water and wipe dry. 

Have a face cloth and a foot cloth, and always wash and 
rinse them after using, but your towels may be put into the 
hamper. 



THE CARE OF BEDROOMS 17 

Always wipe the basin even if you have only washed your 
hands, and if you have been so careless as to slop water all 
about the marble, wipe it up. A cloth for this work (a small 
square of grey crash is suitable) should hang near the basin 
and each person know its purpose. 

Always flush the toilet until the water is clear. If flushing 
is insufficient, as unfortunately it is in some cases, wash off 
with toilet paper and flush again. Wash your hands always 
after using the toilet. 

Never put into the toilet matches, rags, hair, or anything 
that cannot be dissolved. 

Always air the room before leaving it ; put towels in order ; 
remove soiled articles, wash your hands, and in short be sure 
that you have left no trace of your personal use of the bath- 
room. 

Picking-up and Putting in Order. In addition to the special 
care in each of the various rooms there is more or less of daily 
work which is commonly called '^ picking-up.'^ This work 
is necessary to the orderly appearance of the house, but it 
need not be carried to such an extent that the house has no 
home atmosphere, no indication of being really enjoyed and 
lived in, instead of being in order for company. Order is 
desirable but there are times when disorder is unavoidable. 
There is a disorder of work which differs from the disorder 
of dirt. 

School children may help in the home by ^' picking-up '' 
and keeping their books, toys, and clothing in the places where 
they belong; and nothing will help them more in forming 
orderly habits than to have special places given them. They 
should hang up outer garments when they come in from school 
or play and arrange their clothing neatly at night that it may 
be found quickly. 



CHAPTER IV 
HOUSE CLEANING 

To Clean Paint. Provide a basin of warm soapy water, 
another of clear water, a soft flannel cloth for rubbing, a 
piece of old underwear for rinsing, and a large piece of old 
cotton cloth for drying; also a small paint brush and a 
skewer or ice pick for use in the corners of the room. 

Wet the flannel cloth in the warm water, wring dry enough 
not to drip, rub on whiting or mineral soap and wash the soiled 
surface, using the brush and pick in the corners. Wash off with 
the other cloth, wet in the rinse water ; then with the cotton 
cloth rub hard until dry. Wash the scouring cloth after all 
of its surface has been used and take fresh water as soon as 
the first is no longer suitable. Do not clean with dirty water. 

To Clean with Kerosene. Moisten a cleaning cloth slightly 
with kerosene and rub the paint until clean ; then wipe dry 
with another cloth, and keep the windows open until the odor 
is gone. 

When doing the frequent cleaning of window sills and finger 
marks on doors, go over all the places with the scouring 
cloth, then with the rinsing and then with the drying ; but 
when cleaning an entire room clean the portion within reach 
and rinse and dry each part as you go on. 

Daily Care of Floor. If hot grease is spilled on the floor, 
pour cold water on it ; this will harden the grease and prevent 
its spreading and much of it may be scraped off ; or cover the 
spot with starch, borax, or powdered chalk, as this will absorb 
the grease. After a time wash it with soapy water and if it 
shows again, repeat the process. 

Wipe up at once anything that is spilled and brush up any 
crumbs of food before they are tracked around the room. 

18 



HOUSE CLEANING 19 

Be careful when opening packages from the market that not 
even a pin head of fat meat is dropped. A tiny crumb of 
mutton fat, if stepped on, will leave grease spots wherever 
tracked. 

Care of Floors. Hard wood floors finished with oil may be 
cleaned with kerosene. Use a small cloth slightly moistened 
for the corners and edges and help out with a skewer ; then 
take a large mop cloth for the center and use it on a long or 
short mop-handle, as preferred. When clean, rub dry with 
another cloth. iVs often as needed give it a hard rubbing 
with a cloth wet with floor oil. 

Soft Wood Floors. These usually need soft soap and sand 
or some mineral soap. Some persons find it easier to scrub 
with a regular floor brush while on their knees and others 
prefer a long-handled scrubbing brush and a mop. 

Rub soap and sand on the grease spots first ; then begin in a 
corner farthest from the sink ; dip brush into the soap and 
sand, or rub sand soap on the brush and scrub as far as you 
can reach, back and forth the long way of the boards ; rinse 
off with a cloth wrung out of clear water; rinse the cloth; 
wring dry, and wipe thoroughly. Change the water fre- 
quently and use as little as possible, — never deluge the floor 
with water. If dirty water is used it fills the cracks and is 
difiicult to remove. Work toward the sink that the space 
in front may be the last part cleaned. 

Sometimes it is easier to go over the whole floor with the 
long-handled scrubbing brush, then with the rinsing mop, 
and then with the dry mop. 

When the work is done, wash and rinse the brush and the 
cloths. Stand the brush, bristles down, to dry. 

Do not use a corn broom on a varnished or polished floor ; 
— it scratches the surface. Use a floor mop of twine or 
soft cloth; or put a canton flannel bag over a common 
broom. 

To Clean Windows, Mirrors, and Picture Glass. For daily 
dusting or dry cleansing, first wipe off dust from the frames, 
then with a clean cloth rub the glass, up and down and from 
side to side, in overlapping strokes, that every inch may be 
clean. Do not rub round and round. Go well into the 



20 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

corners with a skewer under the cloth. This will answer also 
for windows, on days crowded with other work. 

For washing windows, provide hot ammonia water and a 
pan of clear hot water, two wash cloths, and a clean drying 
cloth. Do not use soap. Wipe off the dust ; wash first with 
the ammonia water and then with the clean, hot-water cloth ; 
rub dry with the soft drying cloth, as directed for dry cleaning. 
Do not wash windows when the sun shines on them, as they 
will look streaky. 

When windows are very grimy outside, as after a rain, 
use whiting, or similar material, which Avill not scratch the 
glass. Wipe off the grit with a cloth or brush. Rub a wet 
cloth all over with the whiting until it is full of suds, and 
wash thoroughly, doing two or three windows, as it must 
dry slightly before the glass is wiped. Do not get the suds 
on the woodwork. Wipe until dry and clear, and if any 
streaks show on the frame wipe them off with a damp cloth. 

School children should not be required to wash windows on 
the outside except where they may reach them easily from 
piazzas, or a short step ladder, or by standing on some secure 
projection under an upper window. To stand inside and 
reach over and down, or to sit on the window sill with the 
back outside is dangerous for any girl or woman, except those 
accustomed to such work. 

Women who are exacting about out door dirt on the outside 
of windows, often fail to notice half washed dishes, or untidy 
bathrooms. Lack of care about food, and any trace of dirty 
finger marks, or other personal uncleanliness, are more objec- 
tionable than rain streaked windows. 



CHAPTER V 
DISH WASHING 

Cooking Dishes. When preparing a meal use as few dishes 
as possible ; wash a cup or spoon instead of taking another. 
Always wipe a Dover egg beater, can opener, or other small 
cooking tool, with a damp cloth; wipe dry, and put away 
as soon as used, for if put into the dish water the oil is soon 
washed out. 

Wash a glass lemon-squeezer at once with a small paint 
brush. 

Soak mixing-bowls and milk-jars in cold water. 

Put supplies in their places and clean up as you work. 

Wash in hot soapy water bread, cake, and muffin pans after 
every using. Do not try to save work by wiping them out 
with a dry cloth or paper instead of washing; they soon 
become rancid if not scalded, and the under-crust will betray 
your negligence. 

Tables, Shelves, Bread-boards, and Woodenware. Scrape 
off the dough and crumbs; dip a brush slightly in warm 
water ; rub on sand soap and rub hard with the brush, always 
with the grain of the wood, and hardest where there are grease 
spots. Clean dough from cracks with a skewer or old knife. 
Do not let the water run over the edge but be careful to wash 
the edges. When clean, wash with a cloth in clear cold water, 
rinse off, and wipe dry. Wash the cloth and brush and leave 
brush, bristles down, to dry. Always wash bread and meat 
boards on the table where they have been used. They are 
awkward to handle in a sink and if left in an iron sink they 
will be blackened by the iron. Stand them on edge until 
perfectly dry. 

Before serving the meal, have a covered, granite pail or 

21 



22 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

pan large enough for your need near the sink ready for refuse 
and table scraps, a tin pail for hot fat to be used as dripping, 
and another for soap grease. As soon as meat or fried food 
is dished, pour off the fat while hot, and fill the pan with hot 
soapy water. Fill vegetable boilers and saucepans with cold 
water and keep them cold. Do not set either on the stove to 
dry on around the edges. 

Have coarse crash-towels and holders for oven use and 
never use the dish towels for that purpose. 

When broiling or baking meat, spread a newspaper on the 
floor to catch any grease that may spatter about. Keep near 
but not under the sink a floor cloth ready for instant use when 
anything is spilled on the floor. 

After dishing food leave the work table and sink in order, 
with room for the table dishes when the meal is finished. 

If you have no hot water in the sink see that kettles are 
filled and heating. 

Clearing Dining Table. In clearing the dining table, form 
the habit of placing the dishes at once where they belong, and 
save moving them twice. It takes but an instant to put the 
silver into a granite pitcher or quart-measure, the scraps 
into the pan, the soiled dishes of a kind together, and dishes 
with good food remnants by themselves. Finish clearing 
the table and put the dining room in order before you begin 
the washing. 

Care of Left-overs. Put good food left-overs into small 
dishes kept for this purpose, and set them in the refrigerator 
or their proper place ; put useless scraps into the refuse pan ; 
empty tea and coffee pots into a strainer, also any cups, 
plates, sauce dishes, stewpans and boilers with liquid rem- 
nants, and thus avoid having to remove crumbs from the 
sink. Rinse and pile in order. 

Preliminary Work. Soak in cold water any dishes that 
have milk, acid, ^^g or dough adhering, and in very hot 
soapy water any with sugar, gelatine, or grease, especially 
mutton fat ; even after scraping or wiping with soft paper, a 
film of mutton fat remains which only boiling hot suds will 
remove. 

When the dishes are all arranged compactly, wash off the 



DISH WASHING 23 

shelf and table that they may be ready for the clean dishes. 
Form the habit of working in this way instead of piling the 
dishes in the dish pan, working in a clutter, going with drip- 
ping hands from sink to closet and mixing clean and unclean 
dishes all over the place. 

Have ready, in the sink or on the table, a dish pan, a rinsing 
pan, good soap (not strong washing soap) in a shaker, dish- 
cloths, towels, and a tray on which to take away the clean 
dishes. Cover the tray with a clean paper or towel. 

As the dishes are held in the left hand it is more natural to 
have the soiled dishes at the left and the rinsing pan at the 
right, but the position of the sink and closet must decide that 
matter. 

When one person does the entire work the process differs 
from that when one washes and another wipes. In the latter 
case have the rinsing pan half full of hot water, rinse each 
piece as it is washed and put into the drainer. When working 
alone, it is easier to stack the dishes as washed in the empty 
rinse pan, and when all of a kind are washed or the pan is 
filled, pour hot water over and wipe them while other dishes 
are soaking. 

TABLE WARE 

Glass, Silver, and China. It is unwise in washing to use 
water so hot that it hurts the hands. A dish mop answers 
for some things, but there is nothing like the sense of touch 
to make dishes clean. The rinsing water may be much hotter 
for the dishes which need great heat. Do not have the pan 
too full at first nor use much soap. Begin with about two 
inches of hot water and shake the soap-shaker in it until you 
have a slight lather. Never leave soap in the water ; if you 
have no shaker rub a little soap on the cloth. 

Take glasses one at a time and roll them sideways in the 
water, that the outside and inside may take the heat equally 
and thus avoid cracking. 

Wipe glass at once for if it is drained, it will be streaky and 
have to be rinsed. Use a soft brush for deeply grooved glass. 
Handle cut-glass with special care, and do not have the water 
hot, or hit the glass against the pan. 



24 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Silver. Stand a pitcher in the rinsing pan. Wash each 
piece of silver, taking special care with fork tines ; put them 
handles up into the pitcher ; scald with slightly soapy water, 
and wipe dry at once ; — being in the pitcher enables you to 
take them up easily without fishing in the hot pan for them. 

Glass and silver look brighter if wiped quickly from hot 
slightly soapy water, than if rinsed. There will be no taste 
of the soap if done as directed, but some persons prefer to rinse 
them. 

China. Add more hot water, using that from the pitcher 
and rinsing pan, and a little more soap. By this time your 
hands will bear the hotter water. Wash the less soiled dishes 
first, usually in this order ; — cups, saucers, pitchers, covers, 
plates, platters, etc. Stand them around the pitcher in the 
rinsing pan, not with the idea of draining them, but to rinse 
the part that has been used, the inside as well as the outside. 
The pitcher will keep small pieces from sliding. Do not 
crowd the dishes. Rinse and wipe as soon as the pan is full. 
While wiping cups, etc., let the plates soak. Change the 
dish water as often as needed, having it hotter but just as 
clean for the last as for the first. Put the dishes on the tray 
as wiped. 

When all are dry, wipe your hands and take the dishes to 
their places. 

CLEANING METALS 

Pots and Pans. If the sink space be limited, and cooking 
utensils are in the way, wash these first. This method leaves 
the hands in better condition than when such dishes are 
washed last. 

Do not spend time scouring pans where food has burned 
on ; fill the pan with cold water, add a tablespoon of washing 
soda, and boil briskly for half an hour. If after a slight 
scraping with a brass scraper, the scorch does not come off, 
boil again in sal-soda-water, — soaking does not help, boiling 
seems to be necessary. 

Kettles that are used directly over a wood fire and black- 
ened with soot should be rubbed off with crumpled newspaper 
and then with an old cloth. 



DISH WASHING 25 

Do not be afraid to use a clean, dry towel for wiping such 
dishes, for if they soil the towel they are not clean and need 
another scouring. It is less work to scald them well and wipe 
dry at once, than to half do it and depend on the stove heat 
to finish the drying. Do not burn gas to save a towel. 

Many persons who call themselves neat wipe a cooking pan 
out of greasy dish water with the dish cloth and dry it on the 
stove. Possibly because from lack of thought the dish water 
gives out, or they have the habit of leaving these things that 
need the hottest water until the last. 

Do not put anything on a hot stove to dry, for enamel will 
crack, rosin will ooze out from seams in tin ware, and wooden- 
ware will crack or burn. A sunny window is seldom available, 
but boiling water and dry towels are always at hand, if you 
plan wisely. 

Do not put kettles away until dry and cool ; leave them 
uncovered, with their covers near. 

Knives and Forks. Never put steel knives and forks, nor 
any with w^ooden handles, nor of ivory or pearl, into the dish 
water, nor pour hot water over the blades. It is the sudden 
expansion of the steel from the heat that causes the handles 
to crack or loosen at the rivet, even though the handles are 
not in the water. Keep the knife in the left hand and wash 
it with the cloth; when all are washed, rub sand soap on a 
damp cloth and rub the blades and tines on each side until 
bright ; then wash as before and rinse in warm water and wipe 
dry. 

Rust spots may be removed with kerosene. 

Silver. Use whiting on a cloth dampened in water made 
soft with ammonia; or use any reliable preparation. Rub 
the chased portions with a small, soft brush. Let the whiting 
dry a few minutes ; rub briskly with a clean dry cloth and 
brush ; wash thoroughly in hot suds ; wipe dry, and polish 
with chamois. 

Occasionally give the silver a sal-soda cleansing, especially 
that having much chasing. 

Brass, Copper, Nickel Plate. Moisten a soft woolen cloth 
with Putz Pomade and rub briskly. With faucets or station- 
ary articles take an end of the cloth in each hand, bear down 



26 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

hard and pull it briskly back and forth. The friction does the 
work more thoroughly than can be done by mere pressure of 
the hand. When bright, polish with a dry, clean flannel. 

Ironware that is not in constant use may be kept from 
rusting by rubbing all over with oil or lard. 

A new iron kettle is generally rusty ; grease it thoroughly 
inside and outside and let it stand two days ; then wash it in 
hot water softened by a teaspoon of washing soda. 

Stove. After the dinner work is done wipe the stove with 
soft newspaper ; scrape off the spots ; then wash with hot 
soapy water ; wipe dry and give it a daily rub with kerosene. 

Zinc. Kerosene is the best cleanser for zinc ; rub it hard 
and use sand soap for any spots ; then wipe with a dry cloth. 

How to Scour. Use a soft but firm, closely woven cloth, 
slightly wet, and rub on a generous portion of sand soap. If 
the cloth drips, the grit dissolves too quickly, and if the 
meshes are too open, the grit soaks into the cloth, instead of 
staying where you need it, — between the cloth and pan. 

Rub hard back and forth going into all the grooves, corners, 
seams, spouts, handles, edges, etc., with a dull pointed metal 
like an oyster opener or an ice pick, under the cloth; 
for scraping use the brass scraper ; it has pointed and 
rounded corners. Never use a pointed paring-knife for this 
purpose. Do not forget to scour off the brown stain on the 
outside of granite saucepans ; it is always there, partly 
from water boiling over and burning on, and partly because 
you neglect to wipe the water from the outside before putting 
the pan over the fire. If it is not removed every day and the 
pan is used again and again, it soon becomes unclean and 
needs a boiling soda cleansing. 

After all the pans are scoured wash them in hot soapy water 
and rinse with boiling water. Hotter water is needed for 
rinsing kettles and pans than for table dishes. 

Sal-soda Cleansing. Use a boiler or old pan large enough 
to hold the articles to be cleansed. Put in water enough to 
cover them and one-fourth pound of sal-soda to each gallon 
of water. When it boils stand the silver in, so that the pieces 
will not touch but be covered entirely. After boiling ten 
minutes remove them and wash in hot suds, while other pieces 



DISH WASHING 27 

are Immersed. The dlscolorations not removed by the soda 
will yield readily to a slight rubbing with brush or cloth. 
Scald and wipe dry. The soda will not injure silver and the 
labor of cleaning is greatly reduced. 

Treat in the same way saucepans, pie plates, wire broilers, 
spiders, and fish pans, whenever they are browned beyond 
what a slight rubbing will remove. 

In using sal-soda, do not put the hands into the solution ; 
use a stick, or long fork or holder in removing pans. Do not 
use the solution on paint or floors. It takes off the paint and 
makes floors splinter and turn grey. It is cheaper to use it in 
the form of sal-soda, than in the many high priced prepara- 
tions claiming marvellous power, of which soda is the principal 
ingredient. 



CHAPTER VI 
CARE OF REFRIGERATOR, PANTRY, AND GARBAGE 

Care of Refrigerator. If you have much food to keep, fill 
the chest with ice and always replenish before it gets low, as 
much ice is wasted in cooling the chest if it has entirely 
melted. Plan to give the pipes and ice-tray a thorough 
cleaning before new ice is put in. 

Wipe the shelves every morning ; look over the food and 
plan to use left-overs at the next meal if possible ; avoid 
crowding the shelves with messes. Use small dishes and put 
things of a kind together. Keep liquids where they may be 
seen easily. Meat and food needing the greatest cold should 
be kept on the bottom. A covered stone jar is best for butter 
and when filling it, cut the butter in shapes for the table. 
The milk jar should be covered and stand near the ice. Keep 
drinking water in quart glass-jars near the ice ; this is cold 
enough and much better than to drink ice water. Wash and 
scald the jars every morning and re-fill during the day when 
needed. 

Do not put hot food into the refrigerator. 

Do not put bananas, onions, fish, pine-apples, and other 
foods with strong odors, inside. 

Never put uncooked meat next to the ice. Put it on an 
agate dish near the ice. 

Lettuce, celery, radishes, etc., may be wrapped in a napkin 
and laid on the ice. 

When you go to the refrigerator, work quickly, set out near 
by all you will need, and always close the door, even though 
you may have to open it in a few minutes. Save ice in this 
way by not letting hot air inside, but do not try to save it by 

28 



CARE OF REFRIGERATOR, PANTRY, AND GARBAGE 29 

wrapping the Ice in a blanket or paper, for the ice must melt 
if we are to keep the inside of the refrigerator cold. 

Once a week remove the tray and strainers under the ice ; 
wash and scald with a sal-soda solution ; rub the pipe up and 
down with a wire brush or with a narrow strip of cloth tied 
on a loop in the end of a stiff wire ; pour the solution down 
slowly while you rub ; rinse with clear boiling water ; wash 
and scald the drip pan. No matter how clean you may keep 
the shelves and walls by the daily wiping, the pipes and pan 
and ice-tray must have this weekly cleansing to remove the 
sediment that collects from the melting ice. 

Garbage. Keep a tightly covered pail on the sink shelf for 
use at meal times ; empty it into the outside garbage pail 
after washing dishes, and wash and scald the pail. Lay a 
piece of paper in the bottom, letting it come up round the 
sides, that the contents may slip out easily when emptied. 

Wash the outside garbage pail every morning or after col- 
lection. 

Where gas stoves are used or you have no garden in which 
to bury refuse, you will have to depend upon a collector. 
With a wood or coal fire much of the refuse may be consumed 
in the space between the top of the oven and the middle 
cover lids. If put in after you are through with baking, it 
will be quickly converted into ashes. Avoid crowding in 
much at a time and open the chimney draft. It will not 
injure the stove if burned at once. 

The Sink. Avoid letting any grease, scraps of food, coffee 
grounds, matches, and the like drop into the sink. Keep 
the strainer over the waste pipe screwed down, and if you 
have a brass scraper handy, it is much easier to take scraps 
up at once and put them into the garbage pan. Do not try 
to wash them down by flushing with water for they do not 
belong in the pipe. 

Use a cloth for scrubbing the sink ; it is easily kept clean, 
sweet and dry, but a brush or corn-broom, or rubber-shovel 
soon become offensive. The brass scraper needs only a little 
scouring when you clean the brass strainer. 

Wash and scrub the sink all over, with hot soapy water; 
use sand soap where there is grime or grease ; clean back of 



30 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the faucets and pipes, wash front and edges of the sink, 
rinse thoroughly and flush the pipes with hot water, and then 
wipe dry. 

Towels. Use soft but firm linen crash for towels. Wash 
them in clean warm water ; rub soap on spots ; rub until 
clean and rinse in two waters ; wring dry and shake from end 
and side and hang to dry in the sun, or on towel-bars by an 
open window. If only slightly wet and not soiled, wash them 
in clear cold water to remove the dish-rinsing water. Never 
allow them to dry without this clear-water rinsing if you wish 
them to be soft and sweet for the next using. 

Wash dish cloths in the same way. Use a white dish cloth 
and keep it white. 

A dish towel, worn thin but not in holes, cut in half makes 
a more satisfactory dish cloth than one knit of cotton yarn 
which soon becomes stiff and dingy. Have a small towel- 
rack over the sink-shelf for the dish cloths. 

Use a heavier cloth for the sink, for oven towels, and 
for cleaning ; one of soft gray crash is washed easily and is 
never mistaken for the dish cloth. Never hang a wet sink- 
cloth, or any cleaning-cloth, in a dark, damp closet under 
the sink. Wash and dry them and hang them on a rack be- 
hind the stove or w^here they may have air. Such closets 
should be removed if possible, but if not, keep only dry 
articles in them. 

Do not use ragged or linty cloths. They catch in the 
edges, clog the drain pipes, and make extra work. Oven 
towels are better than holders for lifting out heavy pans. 

Floor Cloths. A floor cloth of dark soft gingham, or some- 
thing unlike the towels should hang under the sink-shelf 
where it may be caught up quickly when wiping up is neces- 
sary. A floor pan or pail should also be near at hand. 

Wasting Water. Even if you have running hot and cold 
water in the sink, it is better not to waste it but learn how to 
do good work with a small amount. There are many places 
where water must be drawn or brought from a distance, and 
the best of supplies sometimes runs low. 

By a little forethought the same water may be used for 
soaking many dishes ; careful scraping makes soaking unnec- 



CARE OF REFRIGERATOR, PANTRY, AND GARBAGE 31 

essary, and by keeping the rinsing-water-pan hot, a little 
water may be made as effectual as a large amount. 

If obliged to use an iron sink, wash and wdpe dry and rub 
all over with a thick cloth dampened with kerosene. This 
will prevent rusting. Keep this cloth in a covered tin pail. 

When the work is all done, pour a boiling hot solution of 
sal-soda down the waste pipe ; this will melt the grease that 
may have adhered to the pipe, and carry it off, if you remem- 
ber to follow the soda with a plenty of boiling water ; other- 
wise the soda and grease will unite and fill the pipes with 
soap. Use one-fourth cup of soda to one quart of boiling 
water. 

Once a week put a cup of chloride of lime into two quarts 
of boiling water and turn down the sink; this will disinfect 
as well as cleanse the pipe. When flushing the pipe fill a 
pail with hot water and pour it all at once. 



CHAPTER VII 
WASHING CLOTHES 

Washing. Detailed directions for doing the family wash- 
ing and ironing are not practical in elementary classes, but 
in connection with the lessons in cleaning girls may learn 
the general principles of washing clothes. 

Towels are a type of articles only slightly soiled; dust 
cloths a type of street-dirt soiling. 

The order of work and how to remove stains may be 
given briefly. 

Sorting is first in order. Articles to be repaired, or to have 
special treatment are laid aside. 

Fine white waists, laces, and handkerchiefs only slightly 
soiled, — soak in an enamelled pan in warm white soap- 
suds and later rub with the hands. 

Handkerchiefs soiled from colds and coughs should be 
soaked in salt water ; change water several times, and later 
wash and boil in a pail for half an hour. 

Put articles of a kind together in this order : 

Table linen and fine towels. 

Bed linen. 

Fine body linen. 

Soiled body linen. 

Woven cotton underwear. 

Coarse towels. 

Colored garments. 

Kitchen aprons. 

Woolens. 

Colored hosiery. 

Lay aside stained articles from each pile and treat as directed 
under " stains " and such as need to be soaked as follows. 

32 



WASHING CLOTHES 33 

How to Soak Clothes. Do not soak all soiled articles, 
even from the same pile, together. This is a common 
practice but it has many objections. 

All underwear with grimy hems, and mud or street dirt, 
put to soak singly in a pail of warm suds. Long skirts, 

— put only the soiled part into the pan ; let the top of the 
skirt hang over. Swish about with a clothes' stick ; lift to 
avoid getting your hands in muddy water ; make a fresh suds 
and repeat until the water is nearly clear. Then soap the 
soiled places and let them soak in the tub while you wash 
the soiled articles. 

Wash woolens in fresh warm suds and rinse in clear warm 
water. Do not rub the soap on the material, — dissolve it. 

Colored Hosiery. Wash in clean water for if they are 
washed in the rinsing suds, they will be streaked with lint. 
Boiling is unnecessary except for linen used in illness. 

Rinse clothes in clear water; and again if any trace of 
soap be left. 

Always shake out each piece before putting into the bluing 
water, and put in only a few, — then wring dry ; shake well, 

— snap hard any fringed towels ; hang on the line in an 
orderly way, the clothes of a kind together, and where cor- 
ners will not be soiled. 

To Remove Stains: 

Fruits, Tea, and Coffee. Lay the stained part over a bowl, 
and pour boiling water slowly on the stain. 

Spots on the Table Cloth. Before removing the cloth, slip a 
large platter under the spot ; pour on a little water, hot or 
cold according to the stain ; rub slightly with a bit of soft 
linen. When clean, remove platter; slip several folds of 
clean cloth under the wet part, and rub with a clean towel 
until dry. By this method the cloth will not be tumbled 
and may be put away when dry. 

Cocoa and Chocolate Stains. Soak the spot in cold water 
fifteen minutes, and if the spot has not disappeared change 
the water and soak again ; then pour boiling water over the 
stain. 

Iron Rust. Wet the spot ; apply salt and lemon juice, 
and put in a sunny place to dry. 



34 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

To Wash Dust Cloths, Mops, and Floor Cloths. Make a 

strong soapsuds, or sal-soda solution ; put in the cloths, and 
poke them around with a stick for five minutes. Lift them 
out ; pour off the water ; make another suds, and continue 
this until no more loose dirt comes out into the water. Do 
not put the hands into the water, until it is nearly clear; 
then soap well and let the cloths soak until ready to rub them 
clean. Rinse, shake, and dry quickly. After once trying 
this method you will see how useless it is to soak cloths in 
dirty water; the cloth only absorbs the dirt again, and is 
harder to make clean. 



CHAPTER VIII 

HEAT AND FUEL 

Section I 
Heat 

Artificial heat for household purposes is obtained by rapid 
combustion, or the chemical union of the oxygen in the air 
with the carbon and hydrogen found in fuel. 

Hydrogen is a gas, and is the lightest substance known. 

It is seldom found free in nature, but its compounds are 
everywhere. Combined with oxygen it forms water and in 
this form it is found in all animal and vegetable substances. 
Pure hydrogen burns instantly in the air when lighted and 
produces intense heat, and the result of the burning is water- 
vapor. 

The principal fuels used in household heating are wood, 
charcoal, anthracite and bituminous coals, kerosene oil, 
and gas, all composed of either carbon, or compounds of 
carbon with hydrogen, forming hydro-carbons. Sometimes 
they contain both. 

All these varieties of fuel were originally derived from 
vegetable matter. The living tree or plant, through its 
leaves and roots, takes in from the air and soil carbon 
dioxide and water, with earthy and nitrogenous matter 
dissolved in the water. It gives back to the air a large 
part of the oxygen contained in the gas, but retains some 
of it, and especially retains much of the carbon and water. 
Upon these it lives, and from these, with the help of the 
sunlight, it constructs the woody fibre, sap, and other sub- 
stances, — compounds which are rich in carbon. Since 

35 



36 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

these compounds have been built up by the energy of the 
sunlight, and can unite with oxygen, they are readily combus- 
tible. When we burn them in the form of wood, oil, fat, etc., 
this energy is liberated, or set free, as heat, or light, or both. 
By heat, which represents a certain amount of energy, we are 
enabled to have work done : on a large scale, when we burn 
coal under an engine, and on a small scale when we burn it in 
our stoves, and use the heat to cook our food. Artificial 
heat may thus be traced to the sunlight, the chief source, 
also, of all natural heat. 



Section II 
Fuel 

Wood IS a product of vegetable growth, found in the 
trunks and branches of trees. It contains hydro-carbons 
in a solid form and consists of slender fibres or tubes closely 
packed together. When first formed these are hollow, and 
contain the sap or vegetable juices ; but gradually they 
become hardened and consolidated, and by their successive 
layers or rings indicate the age of the tree. 

Some of the hard woods are oak, hickory, and maple ; soft 
woods are pine, spruce, and cedar. 

The fibres in hard woods are more densely packed and 
are of a purer quality than those in soft woods. When 
freshly cut, wood contains a large amount of water or sap, 
and soft wood contains more than hard. On exposure to 
the air this water is lost by evaporation. Wood should be 
well dried to be useful and economical as fuel. 

Charcoal is obtained by heating wood in close vessels, 
or in covered pits, with a limited supply of air, — enough 
to decompose the wood, but not enough to consume, or 
entirely burn it, — a kind of partial or half-smothered 
burning. The gaseous elements in the wood are expelled, 
and the coal or charred wood that remains is nearly pure 
carbon. 

Anthracite coal is 90 to 98 per cent carbon. It is found in 
immense layers, deeply imbedded in various parts of the 



HEAT AND FUEL 37 

earth's crust. Ages ago the vast forests and luxuriant forms 
of vegetation were submerged ; and by the action of pressure, 
heat, and other causes they have been changed to their 
present form of coal. The gaseous substances have nearly 
all been expelled and the carbon that remains forms the 
hardest kind of coal. 

This is also known as hard coal and has a glossy black 
color. Anthracite coal is sometimes named from the place 
where it is mined, but there are only tw^o varieties, — the red 
ash and the white ash. The red ash burns more freely than 
the white ash, and although it costs more it is better for 
cooking purposes. Coal of a dull slaty color often contains 
pieces of slate and other incombustible compounds. 

Bituminous Coal, so called from the bitumen or pitch 
which it contains, is derived from other forms of vegetation 
which were buried and had less charring than the hard coal, 
and much of the hydrogen or gaseous element remains. 
It is more abundant than hard coal and therefore cheaper. 

Illiuninating Gas is made by distilling or heating bitumi- 
nous coal with entire exclusion of air. Water Gas is made 
by passing steam through heated coal. 

Coke is the black, porous mass left after the volatile gases 
have been driven ofE from certain kinds of coal and is nearly 
pure carbon. As it burns out quickly, coke fires need fre- 
quent replenishing ; but it is light, easy to handle, and does 
not smoke. 

Petroleum, from which kerosene oil is made, contains 
liquid compounds of hydrogen and carbon, and is obtained 
from wells in the bituminous coal regions. Its location is 
often discovered by finding the coal oil oozing from crevices 
in the rocks. The petroleum goes through various refining 
processes, and when of the best quality it is nearly colorless. 

We burn fuel on a small scale in candles, gas, and oil in 
lamps to secure the light from the flame. 

We burn it on a large scale in stoves and furnaces to obtain 
heat to warm our houses and to cook our food. 

Carbon is the chief element in all these forms of fuel. 
In burning, the oxygen unites with the carbon and hy- 
drogen, forming, with the carbon, carbon dioxide gas, and 



38 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

with the hydrogen, watery vapor. Both escape into the 
air, and the gas is absorbed by plants. Some of the carbon 
is not consumed, and passes off as smoke. 

The Heating Power of Fuels. Wood charcoal, being light 
and porous. Ignites readily, burns rapidly with little or no 
flame, and gives out more heat than an equal weight of any 
other fuel. 

Anthracite coal is next in heating power. Owing to 
its density it kindles slowly, but when once thoroughly 
ignited it burns with an Intense heat, without flame, smoke, 
or soot, and for a long time. 

Bituminous coal Ignites readily, burns with much flame 
and smoke, but yields less heat than anthracite. 

Soft woods kindle quickly, burn with much flame, produce 
intense heat, go out quickly, and leave but few coals. 

Hard woods kindle and burn slowly, with less flame, but 
afford a large mass of coals, which retain the heat a long 
time. 

It has been estimated that 1000 ft. of gas equals from 
50 to 60 lbs. of coal or about 4| gallons of kerosene. (A 
common coal hod holds nearly 30 lbs.) Half a ton of coal 
equals a cord of wood. 



CHAPTER IX 
FIRES 

The carbon and hydro-carbons in fuel will not burn or 
unite with oxygen and produce rapid combustion except 
at a very high temperature, — that is, when made very hot. 
The temperature at which this union takes place is called 
the burning-point. This varies in different substances, 
and kindling means must be employed to produce it. 

Some substances, like the phosphorus on matches, will 
burn very easily when heated by friction. The phos- 
phorus ignites the sulphur, and the burning sulphur makes 
the wood hot enough to burn, and thus we have a little 
fire. 

The match burns with a bright flame because the wood has 
first been decomposed by the heat, gases are formed and the 
burning of these gases and not of the solid wood produces the 
fiame. Any fuel that burns with a flame must be at that 
moment in a gaseous state. 

In burning gas we simply apply a lighted match, — it in- 
stantly heats the gas to its kindling point and we have a 
bright flame. 

We light the wick in a candle and at first it burns slowly, 
the wax or tallow in the candle must first melt, be absorbed 
by the wick, change to a vapor and when the vapor is heated 
to its kindling point it burns with a clear flame. If we 
hold the burning match near large pieces of hard wood or 
coal it will not make them burn, because the match will 
burn out before they are hot enough to take fire. But if we 
place paper or shavings and a pile of small pieces of soft 
wood under the hard wood, and apply the lighted match to 
the paper, we soon have a bright flame. The burning shav- 

39 



40 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

ings heat and kindle the soft wood ; this in turn kindles the 
hard wood and coal and in this way we make our fires. 

Hard coal is made up almost entirely of solid carbon, 
which no furnace heat can change into gas. As there are no 
gases first made by the heat, so there can be no flame pro- 
duced in the burning. Hard coal burns with a steady glow 
without flame, provided there is plenty of air to burn the 
carbon; but when the coal is densely packed in the grate 
and the supply of air is insufficient, a poisonous gas is formed 
which burns with a blue flame. It disappears when the coal 
burns freely. This gas is known as monoxide. 

When a fuel burns freely the air above it becomes heated, 
is lighter and rises, making the flame stream upward. Cold 
air rushes in to take its place and this in turn becomes heated 
and rises. This current of air is called a draft. In order 
to regulate the amount of air that rushes in, and utilize the 
heat from the fire, the burning fuel is confined within narrow 
walls thus shutting off the supply of air from the sides and 
admitting it only from below. There is an opening at the 
upper end for the heated air and smoke to escape. If both 
of these openings are closed the fire goes out, for no more 
oxygen is supplied. 

But when there is a proper supply of air the fuel will burn 
until it is nearly consumed. The smoke and other products 
of combustion escape through the opening above the fire; 
by means of a pipe they are drawn into the chimney flue and 
thence into the air outside. 

The products of combustion are gases, vapor, smoke, and 
soot. 

Carbon monoxide is the gas that is formed when combus- 
tion is not complete ; it burns near the fuel with a blue flame 
and is poisonous. 

Carbon dioxide is invisible, the product of complete com- 
bustion. 

Smoke is made up of tiny particles of fuel only partly 
burned that escape with the vapor in the draft up the chimney. 

Soot is formed from the burning of wood and soft coals 
which contain oily compounds ; these unite with the unburned 
bits and cling to the bottom of kettles and to the flues. 



FIRES 41 

Ashes. In wood and coal there is a small amount of min- 
eral matter ; it will not burn and in the process of combus- 
tion is left as ashes. These settle under the fire and if al- 
lowed to accumulate and prevent the entrance of air, they 
hinder the burning. 









CHAPTER X 
COOKING BY GAS 

Gas IS now in general use for cooking purposes wherever 
artificial or natural gas may be obtained. It saves the labor 
and dirt of wood, coal, and ashes, and the time required to 
build and care for a fire. It is a clean fuel, and if the stove is 
well made and properly connected with the flue, the burners 
kept clean, and the valves shut tight when not in use, there 
will be no odor of gas. Whether it is an economical fuel or 
not depends upon the one who uses it, and also on the price 
of gas, as this varies in different places. 

Gas Stoves are found in all sizes and styles, some being 
fitted for every kind of work. 

Gas Plates with one or two burners are used on a table or 
shelf and are connected directly with the main supply pipe, 
or by a flexible tubing of a length which permits change of 
position. 

The Gas Range in general use stands on the floor, which 
should be protected by zinc. It is connected with the flue 
by a pipe, has from four to six burners on the top, and two 
ovens below, the lower one used for roasting, broiling, and 
toasting. The range should stand on blocks if not high 
enough to use without stooping. 

The modern range has the oven and broiling burners at the 
side, and this is an advantage for thus the process of cook- 
ing may be seen easily. The hot closet and shelf for utensils 
are below. 

Some stoves have a top similar to that of a coal range, or 
half of the covers are solid instead of open around the burners. 
These covers radiate the heat and two or three stewpans 
may be used over one burner, thereby saving gas. They are 

42 



COOKING BY GAS 43 

convenient for flat irons, and the top being level there is no 
danger of pans tipping over. 

Paits of a Gas Stove. In using a gas stove become familiar 
with every part of it. Locate the supply pipe leading from 
the main pipe, the shut off, the ovens, the pilot light and other 
oven burners, the iron drip sheet under the top, and the 
valves for each burner. 

Some valves or stop cocks are circular and turn over to 
the right and left ; others have a long knob or handle which 
opens out in a straight line with the burner pipe to admit 
the gas, and turns at right angles to shut it off. One 
can tell at a glance whether these valves are open or 
closed. 

Lighting the Top Burners. If the gas has been shut off 
entirely from the range, open the valve in the connecting 
pipe, — usually when open it is in a line with the pipe. See 
that all the valves are tight, light the match, open the valve 
to be used, let the gas run a second, then apply the lighted 
match at the top of the burner. If it pops and goes out, or 
'' burns back " with a roaring noise and you see flame in the 
air hole near the valve, the match was applied before suffi- 
cient gas had flowed ; turn it out and light again. 

Lighting Oven Burners. Always open both doors before 
lighting the pilot, as gas sometimes collects under the oven 
if it is turned on too long before applying the match, as is 
often the case when the first match goes out. If this gas is 
lighted suddenly in the confined space there is danger of 
explosion. Leaving the door open five minutes dries out any 
moisture that may have collected there. 

Open the pilot valve and light it through the hole in the 
side of the stove ; this flame acts as a taper and as soon as you 
open the valves lights the burners with a slight explosive 
sound. When both are burning freely with a blue flame turn 
off the pilot light. 

When using the lower oven for toasting or broiling, heat 
the oven well with closed doors, then put in the food and 
leave the door open that air may be admitted, for it is the 
oxygen in the air which causes the difference between the 
browning of broiling and that of baking by confined heat. 



44 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Economical Use of Gas. The gas should always burn 
with a blue, not a yellow flame. The yellow indicates that 
the flame is too high or the burner is clogged and the supply 
of air is not sufficient. 

Use the full flame only to start water boiling quickly, or 
for quick heating of the oven. As soon as the water boils 
turn the gas as low as can be without checking the boiling, 
and then regulate it as needed. Only a few foods need brisk 
boiling. 

If kettles are too full, or the flame too high, the contents 
boil over and clog the burners, cause a disagreeable odor and 
much extra work. 

When a hot oven is needed quickly leave the full flame on 
for ten minutes that you may have the heat radiated from 
the hot iron of the oven which helps in top browning ; then 
reduce the heat, sometimes by turning off the back burner 
entirely. Five minutes before removing the food turn off 
all heat. 

AmoTint of Gas Consumed. When burners are turned on 
full, each top burner consumes about two cubic feet per 
hour; the simmering burner somewhat less, and the oven 
burners from thirty to forty cubic feet per hour. 

By using a portable oven over the top burners (either one 
or two of them according to the size), much of the baking 
may be done there with quite a saving of gas and heat. 
When not using a burner turn the gas out; matches are 
cheaper than gas. 

To Clean the Gas Range. The burners have holes in the 
supply pipe to admit air and these should always be free 
from dirt, dust, and grease. In many modern stoves the 
burners may be taken apart when cleaning is needed. Dis- 
solve two tablespoons of washing soda in two gallons of water 
and boil the burners in this solution for ten minutes ; use it 
also for washing the drip sheet, which should be cleaned 
every day, as well as the racks in the broiling oven. Any- 
thing that may have cooked over in the baking oven should 
be scraped off. Never blacken the burners, for it is not 
necessary to blacken any part ; wash the stove with kerosene, 
or with a cloth slightly greased and this will remove the rust. 



CHAPTER XI 
STOVES AND RANGES 

A fire for cooking purposes is best made in an iron box, 
or, as it is usually called, a stove, or range. By so doing 
we confine the heated air within a certain space, and can 
obtain more or less heat, as may be required. By means of 
a pipe we connect the stove with a chimney having an open- 
ing into the outer air. The ashes drop through a grate in 
the bottom of the fire-box into the hod or pan beneath. 
We control the amount of heat obtained from the fire by 
dampers in the stove and pipe. These increase or diminish 
the supply of fresh air, regulate the circulation of hot air 
through the flues of the stove, and afford an outlet for the 
imperfectly burned carbon and products of combustion. 

Through ignorant or careless management of a fire, much 
fuel is wasted, health is impaired, and often human lives 
are sacrificed. Charcoal and anthracite coal should not be 
burned in close rooms, especially in open stoves, with the 
pipe dampers closed, or where there is a poor draught in the 
chimney. Poisonous gases are formed, which if inhaled, 
cause death by suffocation. It is, therefore, a matter of vital 
importance that we so regulate our fires and ventilate our 
rooms that the air may not be impregnated with these 
deadly gases. 

THE MAKING AND CARE OF A FIRE 

Remove the covers, and brush the ashes from inside the 
top of the stove into the fire-box. Leave a thin layer of ash 
on top of the oven to help keep the heat within. Replace the 
covers, close the dampers, and turn over the grate. Shake the 

45 



46 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

lower grate, letting the ashes sift through into the ash-pan. 
When the dust ceases to rise, brush out the oven, remove 
the cinders from the lower grate, and reserve them to burn 
again. When taken out in this way, the ashes in the pan will 
not require sifting. If there be no lower grate, remove the 
ashes and cinders together, and sift them. Pick over the 
cinders carefully, and throw out any stones, slaty pieces, or 
bits of clinker. These should never be burned, as they 
injure the lining of the fire-box ; but any pieces of half -burned 
coal should be saved. Always take out the ashes before 
lighting the fire, for if they are left in the pan, sparks and 
lighted coals will drop into them. It is then highly impru- 
dent to remove them, unless they are to be placed in a fire- 
proof ash receiver. Fires have often been occasioned by 
careless storing of hot ashes. 

Put into the fire-box, first, shavings or loose rolls of news- 
paper, letting them come close to the front; then fine pine 
kindlings, arranged crosswise, that the air may circulate 
freely between the pieces ; be careful to have them touch 
each end of the fire-box that the coal may not drop through 
to the grate. Then put on enough hard wood, arranged in 
the same manner, to come nearly to the top of the fire-box. 
Put on the covers, open the dampers, and brush the dust off 
the stove. 

Moisten some stove-polish with cold water, and put 
it on the stove with the *^ dauber." Rub the blacking 
in thoroughly, then light the paper from below the grate, 
and while the fire is kindling polish the stove with the dry 
polishing brush. Blacken the stove while it is cold, but 
polish as it begins to heat. 

When the wood is well kindled, put in a few more pieces 
of hard wood, and press the coals down to the grate. Put 
on coal enough to cover the wood, and when this has kindled 
fill the fire-box to the top of the lining. By making sure that 
the hard wood kindles first, and adding the coal gradually, 
much trouble is saved; for unless the kindling be well 
seasoned, part hard wood, and plenty used, it will either 
not kindle or will burn out before the hard coal kindles, 
and then the coal must be removed and the fire rebuilt. 



STOVES AND RANGES 47 

The blazing heat from the wood alone warms the stove, 
and the oven quickly becomes hot. If you have charcoal 
or Franklin coal, it may be put on at first with the wood. 

When the blue flame is no longer seen, close the oven 
damper ; and as soon as the coal is burning freely, shut the 
front damper. Then regulate the fire by the slide or damper 
in the pipe. 

While making and watching the fire, empty the tea- 
kettle, wipe out the inside, fill it and the reservoir with 
fresh water, — never from the hot-water tank, — finish 
polishing the sides and back of the range, and brush up 
the hearth and floor. 

When a hot fire is needed for several hours, add a sprin- 
kling of new coal before the first has burned out, and add to it 
often enough to keep the fire at a uniform heat. Be careful 
not to cover and thus check the fire, and never have the 
coal above the top of the lining. 

When the fire is not needed for the present, add a little 
fresh coal, and close all the dampers in two or three minutes, 
or as soon as the blue fiame disappears. Never shut off all 
the draught on a red-hot fire without putting on a little 
fresh coal, if you wish to keep it in good condition to use 
again. It is important to remember that when all the coals 
are red they are nearly burned out, and will not give out heat 
for so long a time as when partly black and partly red. 

To quicken an old fire, open all the dampers ; and if 
the coal is black or only partly burned on top, pick out the 
ashes underneath with the poker, and when it begins to burn 
more freely add a sprinkling of coal and shake the grate. 
Keep the grate free from ashes when a very hot oven is needed. 
But if the old fire has burned so low that all the coals look red 
or ashy, always put a few pieces of small coal on the red 
coals, and when these are burning add carefully a few more ; 
then shake the grate gently, or pick out the ashes. If 
you shake a dying fire, the ashes fiy up and settle on the coals 
and put out the little life there is in them. 

During cold weather, or when a fire is required for heat- 
ing purposes as well as for cooking, it is more economical, 
with most first-class stoves, to keep the fire night and day. 



48 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

letting it go out occasionally should the grate become clogged. 
But when it is no longer wanted for either purpose, turn the 
grate over at once that there may be no unnecessary burning 
of the coal. 

Once a month clean out the ashes and soot from the flues 
back of the oven and under it. There are openings made 
for that purpose. 

When anything is spilled on a hot stove, scrape off the 
thickest part of it at once with an old knife, and wipe off the 
grease by rubbing hard with a crumpled newspaper. 



CHAPTER XII 
WOOD FIRES 

Cooking by Wood Fire. In many country places wood is 
the chief fuel for cooking, especially in the summer. There 
should be a full supply of well-dried wood ; pine or soft wood, 
split fine for kindling, with chips, pine cones, and any other 
small portions you may happen to have convenient ; light 
trash wood for a quick fire, and oak or other hard wood, cut 
a little shorter than the fire box and of varied thickness, for 
a long steady fire. 

One of the most helpful ways for the boys to combine home 
work and school credits is to see that the wood supply is 
perfect. 

Follow the directions for kindling a coal fire, using the hard 
wood instead of coal. For quick boiling and other top-of- 
stove cooking, have the front dampers open and when the 
fire burns freely close the pipe damper that the heat may go 
round the oven. Fill the fire box full, using light and hard 
wood not too closely packed, and when burning freely 
and the top of the stove is hot, close the dampers and 
regulate as needed for the oven. 

Use flat-bottomed, enamelled stew pans, which may be 
moved over any part of the stove, and do not set them down 
right over the blaze. You will soon learn by experience the 
hottest places. With a good body of fuel and drafts right, 
the whole stove is heated enough to do an hour's work on it. 
If you start with only a few sticks and add a little every few 
minutes you will waste the heat and must give the fire your 
whole attention. If pans are directly over the fire they 
become blackened with soot, interfere with the wood, and 

49 



50 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

often do not cook as quickly as if placed on the hot iron. 
Use the door at the end when more wood is needed. 

When the fuel is right and the fire managed correctly, a 
meal may be prepared with as little trouble as with a coal fire ; 
and by the time the vegetables are done you will have a bed 
of good hard-wood coals for broiling. 

If the fire is needed only for heat, fill the fire box, shut all 
the dampers and it will burn slowly like the old-time parlor 
airtight stoves. A portion of green wood may be used now 
to advantage. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE TIRELESS COOKER 

This is a modern application of the same principle that is 
used in the Norwegian Hay Box, also in the brick oven near 
the chimney, and to go still further back, the out-door 
oven of primitive peoples, and the hot stones in a hole in the 
ground. 

Stoves and ranges radiate a great amount of heat far away 
from the food which is being cooked and this heat is wasted. 
Fires that are not regulated become too hot and food burns, 
or they go out before food is done. 

Time and attention are needed to keep the fire and a large 
amount of fuel must be used if cooking is prolonged. 

Many of these disadvantages may be overcome by using 
the fireless cooker, especially a late and improved form of it, 
as a part of a well-designed gas range. 

A common form of the cooker, which may be made at little 
expense, is a box several inches larger all round than the 
kettle in which the food is to be placed. Two kettles may be 
used if needed. The bottom of the box is lined three or four 
inches deep with some non-conducting material, such as hay, 
excelsior, sawdust, ground cork, newspapers, wool or cotton 
batting. 

A frame of heavy cardboard or asbestos is made to fit 
around the kettles and fastened in place, and the space around 
filled in closely with the packing. A cushion four inches 
thick filled with packing and fitting the top of the box is laid 
on the top after the kettles are in place, and the box cover fits 
closely over the whole. 

The modern cookers have places for two or more kettles, 

51 



52 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the packing is closely covered and it is but little work to 
adjust the kettles to their places. Iron plates or discs are 
heated and placed above and below the kettle to increase the 
heat, and all the space is filled perfectly with the best non- 
conductors. Home-made cookers have some disadvantages. 
The packing absorbs odors, moisture collects in seams of 
kettles and they rust. In buying a cooker choose one with- 
out seams in the linings and the kettles. 

All foods are first cooked on the stove from 10 to 30 min- 
utes, or until hot all through and then placed in the cooker 
tightly covered and left for the required time. Only a little 
heat can escape, and the heat of the partly cooked food is 
generally sufficient to finish the cooking without further atten- 
tion. This long, slow cooking softens the food material and 
develops flavors not possible in rapid cooking. Foods that 
require the flavor of browning may be finished in the oven. 

The fireless cooker is best adapted for a large amount of 
food, enough nearly to fill the kettle, as a large amount holds 
the heat longer than a small amount. Steamed breads, 
puddings, cereals, stews, beans, soups, large pieces of meat, 
like ham or poultry, are most suitable for the cooker. Beef, 
lamb, and chickens, which are usually roasted, may be begun 
in the cooker and browned in the oven a few minutes before 
serving. Meat should not be kept in the cooker too long; 
it spoils at a warm temperature. 

The cooker is equally suitable for keeping food cold. After 
ice cream has been frozen the can may be set in the cooker 
closely covered, and the cream will keep frozen for some time 
without ice. 

The great merit of the fireless cooker is that it retains heat 
without any fire, just where it is needed and for a long time, 
with no attention, leaving the housekeeper free to attend to 
other occupations. 

Where a cooking fire is not needed for warmth it is a great 
saving of fuel. 

Special directions for use will be found in each cooker. 
When once the principle is understood, ways of adapting it 
will suggest themselves even if you have no patent cooker. 
The steam radiator in winter, if you are sure of a steady heat 



THE FIEELESS COOKER 53 

all day, may be utilized for baked beans, stews, baked apple 
sauce, rice pudding, and the like. Start them on the stove, 
after breakfast, cover tightly, set the pan on the radiator, 
stuff papers all round and cover the whole with blankets, and 
at supper time you will find the food well cooked. 



CHAPTER XIV 

OIL STOVES, LAMPS, CHAFING DISHES, AND 
ELECTRICITY 

Kerosene Oil Stoves. Kerosene stoves are comparatively 
cheap and the oil is not an expensive fuel, but the heat is less 
intense than that of other fuels and more time is needed for 
cooking. They are invaluable for summer use where gas or 
wood is not obtainable. They are heat savers but not labor 
savers, for they must be watched when in use to prevent 
smoking and be cleaned thoroughly daily ; otherwise the odor 
will not only be disagreeable, but will vitiate the air. Their 
great merit is that being portable they may be used wherever 
it is most convenient and comfortable to work. 

The cleaning of an oil stove is not hard, if done regularly 
and in the most effective way. The new blue-flame stoves 
are more easily regulated than those of older design, but even 
these must be kept clean. The oil is fed from a tank outside 
of the stove into a hollow ring below the burner, and becomes 
heated sufficiently to vaporize it. This vapor unites with the 
air and burns with a blue flame. In the older stoves the oil 
is below the burners and is absorbed by the wick. 

The following directions will apply to the cleaning of any 
stove and also to lamps. 

See that the wicks fit well and turn easily. After trimming, 
light them and trim again if there are any points of flame ; 
round off the corners slightly. When they are once made 
even, the daily rubbing off of the charred wick will be 
sufficient. 

The burner and cylinder must be kept clean and bright ; 
turn the wick down half an inch, rub sand soap on a bit of 
soft, firmly-woven cloth and scour off the brown deposit on 

54 



OIL STOVES, la:vips, chafing dishes, electricity 55 

the top edge of the burner ; use a small flat-edged skewer under 
the cloth to clean inside the wick tube. 

Wipe off the smoke and soot on the mica, the inside of the 
cylinder and the perforated plate under the burners. Turn 
up the wick and wipe off any sand adhering and wipe the 
whole again with a dry cloth kept for this purpose only. 

No matter how thoroughly the stove was cleaned after the 
last using, if it stands an hour unlighted oil will ooze out, and 
this should always be wiped off with a dry cloth before light- 
ing. You may not see the oil but it is there ; and it is this 
imperfectly burning carbon on the burner, or perhaps the pin 
point of soot in the cylinder that escaped your eye in the clean- 
ing, that causes an odor, even when there is no smoke. 

There is more of '^ don't '' than ^' do '' in the use of an oil 
stove. 

Never use oil of a poor quality ; good oil is nearly colorless 
and flashes, or ignites, at 149° Fah. 

Never light the stove until you are sure there is sufficient 
oil for your work. 

Never flll the stove when lighted, or when other lights are 
near ; morning is the best time. 

Never keep the oil-can near the stove, nor use the oil to 
start a wood or other fire. 

Never light the wicks without first wiping off the cylinder 
and burners. 

Never leave the wick high at the first lighting ; though it 
may not smoke at first, it will as it burns more freely, and 
especially when the water begins to boil. 

Never use an uneven wick ; rub and trim until it is right. 

Never leave the stove after lighting until you are sure it is 
burning as you desire, that no draft can reach it, and that 
water will not boil over or boil out and food burn. Make 
assurance doubly sure by looking at the stove frequently. 

THE CARE OF LAMPS 

Tools. Plan to fill lamps early in the forenoon and if 
possible on a side table or shelf not used for food. 

Protect the table with newspapers and use a metal tray, 



56 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

covered with paper, to hold the lamps, oil-can, and 
tools. 

Fancy lamps need much care ; clean these first and follow 
the special directions given with each variety of burner, or the 
general method applicable to all. 

Chimneys. Remove the chimney and if smoked, wipe out 
inside with a soft, crumpled newspaper. Roll it sidewise in 
hot ammonia water, push the wash cloth round the inside 
with a long thin stick, unless you have the more convenient 
utensil made of a long, quarter-inch thick steel wire, doubled 
and bent over two inches at the top, forming a loop to hold 
the cloth. The ends of wire are inserted in a handle and the 
wires will not bend and have no sharp edges or points. The 
utensil is especially adapted for this work and for milk bottles 
and fruit jars. 

Wash the chimney; rinse in hotter water, and wipe dry 
with a clean cloth used only for lamp chimneys. 

Old soft cotton, or gingham, 18 X 30 inches in size, neatly 
hemmed to prevent lint and ravelings, makes good chimney 
towels. 

rilling. Remove the cap or burner and fill from a small 
oil-can, to within an inch from the top. If too full the oil 
will flow over. Room should be left for the gas that may be 
generated when the wick is lighted. 

Wicks. Screw the cap or the burner on securely, and turn 
the wick up until you can see all the charred edge ; rub it off 
with soft paper and trim off any points. Do not cut the wick 
unless it is impossible to make it run evenly. Turning the 
wick up and down several times will often make it right. 

Light the wick, adjust it to the free burning height, then 
turn it out and trim off any remaining point. Do not leave 
it until the wick is even, for the smoke from a poorly trimmed 
lamp is not only annoying but harmful. 

Wipe the outside all over with the lamp cloth ; stand the 
lamp on a newspaper and if no mark of oil is left after ten 
minutes, put the lamp in its place. 

Kitchen and bedroom lamps, which are carried about, 
should have handles and perfectly fitting brass burners of the 
best quality. 



OIL STOVES, LAIVIPS, CHAFING DISHES, ELECTEICITY 57 

Collect all the lamps that have been used and stand them in 
a row. Remove all the chimneys and wash and wipe one at a 
time. Then unscrew all the burners, and with one lifting of 
the oil-can fill each in turn, holding the burner partly back 
with the other hand. Screw the burners on and trim the 
wicks as directed. 

Wipe the lamps all over and turn wicks down one-fourth 
inch ; if left up, the oil will run over the tube. Then with 
clean hands replace the chimneys and put the lamps in a cool, 
dry place, free from dust. The shelf over the range or hot 
water pipe is handy, but not desirable on account of heat. 

In using lamps turn the wick low after lighting, that the 
chimney may heat slowly. Gradually increase the flame and 
watch it imtil you are sure it will not smoke. 

When carrying the lamp about turn the wick down slightly, 
and also when putting it out. Then blow across the top, not 
down into the chimney. 

When less light is desired, do not turn the wick below the 
point of perfect combustion, for it will vitiate the air. 

Kerosene is cheaper than bad air. 

Wash and scald the lamp cloths, wipe scissors and other 
tools, wash the tray and put all away in the lamp closet. 
Put the paper into the kindling box. 

CHAFING DISHES AND ALCOHOL STOVES 

Pure alcohol is an expensive fuel, but it has its advantages, 
especially when heat for cooking in other ways is not avail- 
able. 

It is a clean fuel with a pleasant odor and its lamps and 
stoves need but little care. It is especially valuable in the 
nursery, the sick room, and when travelling. 

It is used in chafing dishes and pocket stoves. 

Denatured alcohol is used in stoves made especially for 
it, but it has not come into general use, at least not in Amer- 
ica, although the price is much less than that of pure alcohol. 

Wood alcohol has a disagreeable odor when burning, and its 
fumes are irritating to the eyes and throat. If used, label it 
'' Poison.^^ 



58 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Directions for use vary with the different chafing dishes, 
but there are some general principles, applicable to any way 
of burning alcohol, which it is well to understand. 
To avoid danger from fire: 

Keep the stove on a metal tray when in use. Be sure that 
the flame is all out and the lamp cool before re-filling. 

Use the regular filler, with a long, high spout, if possible ; 
otherwise fill from a pitcher with a narrow pointed lip, or 
through a small funnel. 
To save alcohol: 

Have all utensils and materials at hand, and all combina- 
tions made before you fill and light the lamp. Keep the 
bottle or can tightly covered to prevent evaporation. 

Chafing dish pans fit one into the other leaving space for 
water in the lower pan ; there is a cover which will fit either 
pan. 

The upper pan is called the blazer and may be used over 
boiling water in the lower pan, for the cooking of eggs, milk, 
cheese, and such foods as need moderate heat, or for keeping 
cooked foods warm or hot. Either pan may be used directly 
over the flame for quick cooking, for creamed dishes, left- 
overs, oysters, sauteing, and foods which need to be served 
the moment they are done. 

Chafing dish cooking is best adapted to informal suppers, 
emergency luncheons, and light housekeeping. 

In schools without equipment many cooking principles may 
be illustrated with a chafing dish, or the alcohol stove. 

ELECTRICITY 

Electricity is the ideal way of using heat for cooking pur- 
poses, as only a small amount of the heat is wasted, it being 
conducted directly to the utensil to be used. 

The manipulation of the apparatus is easy, there is no time 
lost in lighting matches, and no unpleasant odor from smoke 
or other products of imperfect combustion. 

The expense, both of the outfit and the electricity at present 
prices, prohibits its general use, but every opportunity to learn 
of its methods should be improved. 



CHAPTER XV 
LAYING THE TABLE 

These directions are not intended merely for occasional 
dinners. They are for e very-day home life ; and though 
every detail may not be adapted to all families, yet any 
housekeeper, no matter how limited her means, who has a 
table, a cloth to cover it, and dishes for food, may follow the 
principal suggestions. Habits of order and neatness may be 
cultivated at a pine table, with twenty-five cent table-linen, 
and the cheapest crockery. Meals may be served in a proper 
way, even if one cannot follow every change which fashion 
may suggest. 

First, air the room ; wipe the table and cover with a silence 
cloth. Place the center of the cloth in the center of the table, 
and have the middle fold uppermost, and straight with the 
edge of the table. 

The space at the table occupied by the furnishings for one 
person is called a ^^ cover ^' and the furnishings are called the 
'" service. '^ In common parlance it is called a place. Allow 
about twenty inches for each cover, more for a meal of 
several courses. Arrange the service about one inch from 
the edge of the table. Leave a clearly defined space between 
each cover that there may be no question as to which cover 
the service belongs. 

In the center of each cover lay a plate inside up ; one plate 
at each end of the table and those at the sides opposite each 
other; or if the table be round arrange the covers at 
equal distances apart. 

When bare tables are used place a doily under each plate. 

At breakfast or dinner where hot plates are needed, place 
them all in a pile in front of the one who sits at the head of the 

59 



60 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

table and serves the main dishes. This person is usually 
called the host, and the person at the opposite end who serves 
the coffee, cereal, or soup, salad, and dessert, is called the 
hostess. 

At the right of the plate lay first the knife with the sharp 
edge toward the plate, then the spoon with the inside of bowl 
up, the spoon needed first at the outside, the ends of handles 
even with edge of the plate ; a tumbler with top up just above 
the tip of the knife. 

At the left lay the fork next the plate, the tines up and 
handle in line with those on the right ; beyond the fork lay 
the napkin folded in a square with initial on top and right 
side up. Small fringed napkin may be folded diagonally. 
At upper left corner, opposite the tumbler, place the bread and 
butter plate with butter spreader laid across one side, handle 
toward the right. 

At a meal of several courses, lay each cover with the service 
needed according to the menu ; the forks and spoons in the 
order in which they are to be used, those needed first on the 
outer edge. When there are many covers, lay the forks and 
spoons as needed with each course. 

Fruit spoons and knives, or oyster forks, may be laid across 
the others at the right. For courses needing only a fork, 
place the fork at right. 

The dessert service may be brought in with the plates for 
that course. 

At breakfast or supper arrange the coffee, or tea, and hot 
water at the right of the hostess, the tray bowl, sugar bowl 
and cream pitcher in front and the cups and saucers at the 
left, with sugar tongs and cream ladle at hand. 

At luncheon or dinner, lay a soup ladle and other large 
spoons as needed in front of the hostess. 

Put the carving knife and fork on the carving rests at the 
right and left of the host, a little in front of his cover. Lay 
the butter knife beside the butter plate, and such other 
spoons, knives, or forks where they may be needed for serving 
the various dishes. 

Fruit or flowers if used should occupy the center of the 
table and a low arrangement is preferable. 



LAYING THE TABLE 61 

The salt and pepper may be between each two covers; 
and the vinegar and oil, pickles or jelly at convenient dis- 
tances, near the corners or between the larger dishes. 

Arrange the various dishes on the table in regular order, 
straight with the table edge and exactly in front of those who 
are to serve them ; or, if at an angle let there be some uni- 
formity. 

The cups, plates, and dishes for hot food should be heated 
as needed. Glasses should be filled and bread and butter 
put on the table just before the meal is served. 

Finger bowls are considered by some people a luxury and 
are not usually placed on the table until the dessert ; but there 
are other times when they are equally necessary, and there is 
no reason why they should not be used. When fruit is used 
as a first course at breakfast, they may be put on about one 
fourth full of warm water, at the beginning of the meal. 
When sweet corn is served on the cob finger bowls are almost 
indispensable. They are more easily washed than napkins. 

Arrange the chairs so that the front edge of the seat is just 
even with the edge of the table. 

In announcing the meal do not ring the bell when there are 
invited guests, but tell the hostess or the family that dinner is 
served. 

In simple family life a bell, or a Japanese gong is allowable, 
but it would be better to have a regular hour for each meal 
and then for all to come promptly at that hour. 

In gathering about the daily family table observe the same 
rules of courtesy as on formal occasions. The father or son 
should wait upon mother, or any guest, or elderly person, and 
see that they are comfortably seated. Children should follow 
in an orderly manner and all be seated at the same time. 

No one, especially school children, and those, who have 
been at hard labor, should come to the table without first 
washing face and hands and tidying the hair. 

Girls should don a clean apron if the dress be soiled and 
must be worn for the after meal work, and in hot weather 
boys should cover soiled shirt sleeves with a thin, clean house 
jacket, 



CHAPTER XVI 
WAITING ON THE TABLE 

There is no excuse for the sort of every-one-f or-himself 
style of serving at table which is too often seen. Children, 
boys as well as girls, should be taught and allowed to help in 
the serving, even if one have a waitress. If they can have a 
daily share in the duties, filling the glasses, passing butter 
or sauce, removing the dishes between the courses, etc., 
nothing will give them more ease and self-possession when 
unexpectedly called to fill the place of mother or father at 
the table, or better help to counteract the evil habits of hurried 
eating and indifference to the wants of others, or better enable 
them to direct if they should ever have homes and maids of 
their own. The following general directions may be adapted 
to any style of living. 

If the serving be done wholly by the family, special pains 
should be taken, in laying the table, to provide everything 
necessary, that there may be no occasion to leave the table. 
Spoons for tea or sauce may be laid at the plates, butter-plates 
and glasses filled, and other things made ready before the 
family are seated. 

At breakfast, nearly every one wants coffee or other drink 
first, and there should be no undue haste in passing the sub- 
stantial until this has been served. Ascertain the pref- 
erence of each one as to sugar and cream, and put them in the 
cups, instead of passing them separately. 

Do not fill the plates indiscriminately, and send them to go 
the round of the table, but consult individual tastes or needs, 
and give each one the opportunity of choice as to the various 
dishes. Serve first those whom you wish most to honor, and 
name the one for whom the plate is prepared, 

62 



WAITiNG ON THE TABLE 63 

It makes less confusion for some one to sit near the one 
who carves, and to help to the vegetables and various dishes 
that are to be served on the same plate with the meat, instead 
of passing them back and forth. Be careful to pass all the 
accompaniments with the principal dishes, — the butter and 
syrup with hot cakes, the cream and sugar with mush and 
fruit, the condiments and relishes where they are needed, and 
avoid having many things passing around at the same time. 

There are many families where the lady of the house is the 
only person who can leave the table to arrange for the change 
of courses, but if there be other and younger members of the 
family capable of such service, it should be performed by 
them. No girl, old enough to carry a dish without breaking 
it, should ever permit her mother to leave the table for any 
such purpose. A side table on casters may be placed within 
easy reach, and have on it extra dishes and part or the whole 
of the last course. It will save much confusion in the serving. 

Whether the waitress be one trained to the work, or one of 
the children, the same rules will apply. The waitress should 
remove the cover from the tureen or any other dish, turning 
it over deftly so that it will not drip on the cloth, and lay it 
on the side table. Stand at the right of the one who is serving, 
and take on the tray each plate in turn to the one for whom it 
is intended. 

In passing a plate of soup or meat go to the right of the 
person served and s6t it on the table directly in front of 
him. The cup of coffee or any other drink place at the 
right hand, and thus avoid reaching across the plate, and also 
relieve the one at the table from the awkwardness of taking the 
dish from the tray as would be the case if you were at the left. 

But in passing vegetables or any dishes from which a 
person is to take a portion, pass them at the left, that the 
portion may be taken with the right hand. The dish should 
be held firmly, and low and near enough that it may be 
within easy reach. Put the tablespoon into the dish with the 
handle toward the right and loosen a portion that there 
may be no trouble in taking it. 

Provide a serving fork also for spaghetti, macaroni, and 
such foods as are not mashed or finely divided. 



64 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

In passing a plate hold it so the thumb will not rest on the 
upper surface. In filling glasses, take the glass near the 
bottom, never with the hand over the top, draw it to the 
edge of the table, but do not remove it, and fill only three- 
quarters full. Wlien a change of plates is required, remove 
the plate on the table with the left hand, before attempting 
to put the other plate in its place. 

Briefly the points to be remembered are these. 

Serve or place the filled cup or plate at the right. 

Offer for choice at the left. 

After all are served put the food dishes back on the table in 
their places, or on the serving table, and keep everything 
on the table in order. 

At a dinner of many courses, as soon as a guest has finished 
the course remove his plate with the knife and fork and place 
it on the side table, then return and remove anything not 
needed for the next course. 

At the family dinner do not remove any plates until all are 
through, ^^^len one course is finished, take the tray in one 
hand, and with the other remove from the left all the spoons, 
or knives and forks ; this will prevent the danger of dropping 
them if taken away on the plates, and make less confusion in 
washing. Take away the plates, never more than one in 
each hand ; and also everything not needed for the next 
course. Before the dessert, remove the crumbs with a folded 
napkin into a plate. 

After a meal, first set the chairs in their places, and always 
brush up the crumbs that may have fallen, lest they be trod- 
den into the carpet. In clearing a breakfast or tea table, 
where there has been no change of courses, remove the food 
first that it may not deteriorate by standing. Put butter and 
milk away at once, and any food that may be used again on 
small dishes and in suitable places. 

Then remove glasses, silver, and plates. 

Scrape the dishes, empty and rinse the cups, and pack 
neatly together those of a kind, near where they are to be 
washed. Brush the crumbs from the cloth, fold it in the 
creases, and put it away carefully. Put the dining room in 
order, and remove any odor of the meal by ventilation. 



CHAPTER XVII 
TABLE MANNERS 

There is no place where it is more essential, or where there 
is a better opportunity to observe the golden rule, than at the 
daily home table. 

^' If you please/' and " No, I thank you," are in far better 

taste than '' Yes, thanks," and '' No, thanks." Accept what 

is offered or placed before you ; but should your preference 

be asked, and you have any, it is allowable to name it at once. 

WTien a plate has been filled for you, keep it, and do not from 

mistaken courtesy pass it to the next person. Make some 

sign of acknowledgment for what is served you, either by an 

inclination of the head' or a quiet ^' thank you," whether it be 

offered by those presiding at the table or by the waitress. 

Courtesy to all, and especially to a child or a servant, should 

be the dailv habit. 
«/ 

In family serving, wait until all are helped before you begin 
to eat, and be on the alert to assist in the serving as much as 
possible. But where there are trained waiters and several 
courses, begin as soon as you are helped that there may be no 
delay. 

Keep the spoon in the saucer, because if left in the cup, 
both may be overturned. 

Do not talk or drink while food is in the mouth. 

Take your soup quietly, from the side of the spoon, lest 
in bending your arm to put the end of the spoon in your 
mouth you interfere with your next neighbor. Dip it into 
the plate /rom instead of toward you, and thus avoid dripping 
the soup. 

Break the bread or roll, and eat it separately, not in the 
soup, because it is awkward to take the bread from the side 

65 



66 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

of the spoon. Never lay the bread on the table while spread- 
ing it with butter, nor bite from a large piece. Break off a 
small portion, and spread with butter as needed. 

Use the knife only as a divider ; use the fork to convey the 
food to the mouth. Do not pile food on the back of the fork, 
but pick it up with the fork, or when necessary hold the fork 
inside up and use it as you would a spoon. 

When not using the knife for cutting lay it across the further 
side of your plate. Do not rest the handle on the cloth. 

In passing your plate for a second portion, leave the knife 
and fork side by side at the right edge of the plate. It is 
allowable to lay them across the bread and butter plate, but 
not to hold them in the hand or lay them on the cloth. 

Portions of food that cannot be swallowed, like grape 
skins, seeds, cherry stones, or bits of bone, should not be 
dropped from the mouth on to the plate ; but by covering the 
lips with the hand it may be dropped into the thumb and 
forefinger without betraying to others the nature of the act. 

During the meal keep everything about your plate as neat 
as possible, and after passing anything put it back in its 
place. 

When your meal or one course is finished, place the knife 
and fork in the center of the plate, the tines up that they may 
not slip, and handles directly in front, that they may not be 
in the way in removing the plate. This signifies to a trained 
waitress that you are ready to have your plate removed. 

At the close of the meal fold your napkin, that the table 
may be left in an orderly condition. 

Whether serving, waiting, or eating, do everything quietly, 
easily, and neatly. Never be so absorbed in your own enjoy- 
ment of a meal as to be unmindful of the needs of others. 

If you are in doubt as to what to do, imitate as far as 
possible those whose habits show that their opportunities 
for cultivating good manners have been superior to yours ; 
but on the other hand, when with those whose privileges are 
less than yours, make no pretentious or unnecessary display, 
and never cause any one discomfort by noticing any habit 
that may not be in accordance with your notions. Should 
you be at a table where butter-knives are not provided, it 



TABLE MANNERS 6? 

would be more courteous quietly to use your own knife than 
to call attention to the omission. Should a friend prefer 
sugar and vinegar, rather than French dressing on lettuce, 
or prefer to eat celery with the other dishes instead of by 
itself, do not call attention to these or other personal prefer- 
ences. 

It is not a breach of good manners if you happen to eat 
your oysters with the common fork because you are un- 
familiar with the one provided for that purpose, or choose 
a small spoon instead of a large one for your soup ; but it is 
unpardonable to annoy others by eating or drinking noisily, 
or smacking the lips, or by picking the teeth at the table 
or doing anything that would interfere with another person's 
liberty or enjoyment. And it is equally unpardonable and 
even more impolite to be annoyed by anything in others 
whom you are not at liberty to correct and whose intentions 
are kind though some of their habits may be awkward. No 
matter how you may feel or what the blunder or accident may 
be, never show any displeasure to either servant or guest. 

Many more hints might be given but the following general 
suggestion will apply to every occasion. 

In table etiquette any custom is commendable that is 
based on the golden rule, or is sanctioned by those whose 
general behavior — not table manners, merely — shows that 
good-breeding with them means, not selfishness, but thought- 
fulness for others. But all notions whose root is in a desire 
to imitate persons whose style of living is pretentious, and 
whose tastes and habits are capricious are worse than useless. 
They destroy alike our happiness and our self-respect. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE CARE OF FOOD 

Your instruction would not be complete if we omitted to 
tell you how to take care of food, both before and after 
cooking, and how to prevent the waste that is so often occa- 
sioned by lack of such knowledge. 

All albuminous substances when exposed to the air soon 
pass into a state of decomposition or putrefaction. Milk 
sours ; eggs, fish, and meat putrefy ; fruits and vegetables 
decay; butter, fat, and oils become rancid; preserves 
ferment ; meal and flour become musty, and bread and cake 
mouldy. It is therefore important to know how to care for 
our food, so that it may be kept in good condition as long as 
possible. 

As it is air, moisture, and warmth that occasion the change 
in food, these must be excluded. So it is well to have 
store-rooms in a cool and dry part of the house, and to keep 
many of our materials in air-tight cans or jars. But even 
with all these precautions much food will be lost unless it is 
examined daily. 

Rice, tapioca, raisins, meal, and grains of all kinds, are 
best kept in large, wide-mouthed bottles or jars. These 
may be cleansed easily, the contents are seen plainly, and 
may be kept air-tight. Small jars or bottles are suitable 
for soda, cream of tartar, spices, and other articles usually 
purchased in small quantities. Air-tight tin cans are suitable 
for tea, coffee, crackers, etc. Covered buckets are convenient 
for flour and sugar, but enamelled pails or cans are better. 

Keep the jars and boxes clean on the outside, and when 
they are empty, or at regular intervals, cleanse the inside. 
Never handle them with sticky or floured fingers. 

68 



THE CARE OF FOOD 69 

Do not use tins for moist articles. Do not keep anything 
in paper bags ; they break easily and give an untidy appear- 
ance to a pantry. Empty the bags as soon as the stores are 
sent in from the market. Fold the bags and put them away 
neatly to use for other purposes. 

Do not keep milk in a tin can. Pour it into a large-mouthed 
pitcher or jar, or into a shallow pan. If milk is delivered in 
jars, wash off the top with hot water, and when ready to 
open the jar wipe around the inside before pouring out the 
milk. Do not have your hand over the top when handling 
the jar. 

All dishes in which milk is kept must be washed thoroughly 
first in cold water, then in hot suds and scalded with clear 
boiling water and dried perfectly, or the milk will sour quickly. 
Keep anything that has a strong odor away from milk, 
cream, or butter, as these articles absorb odors readily. 

Fruit should be kept uncovered in a cool, dark place. 
Examine it often and remove all decaying portions. 

Salt fish has a disagreeable odor, and it should be cut into 
small portions and packed in glass jars. Onions and other 
strong vegetables should be kept covered in a dark, cool 
place, and where there are no other foods. 

Lemons should be put into a jar and covered with cold 
water, with a saucer over them to keep them under the 
water. They will keep fresh and juicy for a long time. The 
water must be changed twice a week. Lemon and orange 
peel may be dried and grated, or put into alcohol, and used 
for flavoring. Cranberries may also be kept for some time, 
if covered with cold water. Extracts, spices, etc., should be 
kept air-tight that their strength be not wasted. 

Meat and fish should be examined as soon as they come 
from the market and be wiped all over with a damp cloth. 
Then put them on a plate, never in paper, in a cool dark place, 
not on the ice, but near it. In warm weather examine the 
meat carefully, particularly in the folds and crevices, as 
sometimes clusters of tiny insect's eggs are hidden there. 
The marrow, or soft, fatty substance, should be removed 
from the backbone in mutton and lamb ; also the pink skin 
over the fat, and the thin shiny membranes under the chops 



70 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

and steaks, as these spoil quickly and then taint the whole 
meat. 

Fresh vegetables should also be examined daily. 

Dripping and other fats should be re-melted often, as 
they keep better in a solid than in a broken form. 

Eggs should be wiped as soon as brought in, and the shells 
may then be used for clearing coffee. 

Cooked food should not be shut up tightly when hot. 

Clean and scald the bread and cake jars every other day, 
and never let the crumbs and broken pieces accumulate in 
the jars. 

Remnants of food should never be put away on the large 
table dishes, but on small ones kept for that purpose. They 
should be utilized in some way as soon as possible. In pre- 
paring a breakfast or lunch see what use you can make of the 
'" left-overs '^ before you decide on using new material. 

Cooked vegetables will sour quickly in hot weather, 
especially if seasoned with butter or milk. It is better to 
cook in small quantities and have just enough, than to have 
large portions left over. 

Keep everything in a pantry absolutely clean ; the shelves 
washed and wiped dry, the crumbs removed ; the molasses 
jug outside, free from stickiness ; the lard and dripping pail 
free from grease. And be sure that no rancid fat, or 
wormy meal, or mould, or anything objectionable be allowed 
to remain there. Do not cover the shelves with paper or any 
other movable materials. A bare shelf is easier to keep clean. 

Inspect the refrigerator daily, and clean the spout and 
pan as well as the inside. 

THE WASTE OF FOOD 

The most obvious way in which food is wasted is in throw- 
ing away '' left-overs " but there are other ways seldom 
thought of, but which are equally important and which de- 
serve consideration. 

Food is Wasted in Selection. We should select foods from 
the standpoint of their purity, and nutritive value. Avoid 
novel and costly foods with little nutritive value in propor- 



THE CARE OF FOOD 71 

tion to their cost. Do not buy foods out of season or which 
are so indigestible that they are not assimilated in the pro- 
cess of digestion. Consider carefully the amount of food 
which is necessary and do not have large amounts which 
cannot be kept from deteriorating. 

Food is Wasted in its Preparation. This is done by dis- 
carding much material which is nutritive if prepared rightly ; 
by thick paring of fruits and vegetables ; by discarding 
bones and fat of meat and skin and feet of poultry and the 
water in which certain foods have been boiled ; by baking and 
broiling foods which should be stewed ; by poor combinations 
which check instead of inciting the appetite ; by inaccurate 
measurements that produce uncertain results or failure ; 
and by careless serving which makes the food unattractive 
and unpalatable. 

Food is wasted by experiments with novel recipes, incor- 
rect in their proportions and methods ; by serving too many 
courses, and by lack of variation in our daily menus. 

Food is wasted by indulgence beyond our immediate re- 
quirements ; or by eating at times when fatigue or anxiety 
retard digestion ; or by eating food unsuited to the powers 
of assimilation. 



CHAPTER XIX 
KITCHEN EftUIPMENT 

The following list of equipment for school kitchens is only 
a general suggestion, for each school has its own special re- 
quirements, but it will serve as a guide for both the school 
and the home. It is unwise to have the equipment on a 
scale far beyond the means of the majority of the homes in 
the school neighborhood. 

GENERAL EttUIPMENT 

Sink, with hot water if possible, and furnishings. The 
furnishings should include an enamelled dish-pan and drain- 
ing pan ; wire soap shaker and soap dish ; a dipper ; brass 
sink scraper ; white soap ; mineral soap ; washing soap ; 
dish towels ; pan towels ; oven towels ; dish cloth ; scrubbing 
cloth ; floor cloth. 

Stoves and Furnishings. Stove furnishings include a 
brush, wiping cloth and oven towels and holders. Where 
coal is used, hods for coal and ashes are needed. 

Teacher's desk with furnishings. 

A refrigerator, when classes are large and lessons are given 
daily. 

Dining table and chairs. 

Station or table for each pupil with gas burner and stand- 
ard equipment and attached seats or stools. 

Cabinets for: 

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 

Dishes. Food supplies. Cooking tools. 

Glassware. Glass jars. Cooking utensils 

Linen and silver. Cans for large amounts too large for 

of supplies. pupil's table. 

72 





Modern Kitchen Utensils 



KITCHEN EQUIPMENT 



73 



Closets for: Broom, brushes, paint brush, pail, ice-pick, 
scrubbing brush and cloths, dust cloths, wiping cloths and 
other cleaning utensils ; soap ; sal-soda ; ammonia, and 
other cleaning materials. 

Garbage can and soap grease pail. 

Waste paper pail and soiled towel hamper. 



Utensils convenient for general use, or special occasions, 
but not absolutely essential for each table. 



Scissors. 

Can opener. 

Corkscrew. 

Knife sharpener. 

Funnels, large and small. 

Glass lemon grater. 

Tin cheese grater. 

Chopping knife and tray, or 

Food chopper. 

Bread knife. 

Car^dng knife. 

Agate gem pan. 

Large needles. 

Tissue paper. 

Meat cleaver. 



Hammer. 

Scales. 

2 qt. ice cream freezer. 

Iron bowl for deep frying. 

Basket for frying. 

Tea pot. 

Coffee pot. 

Melon mould. 

Tea kettle. 

Wire broiler. 

Coarse tliread. 

Ball of soft, string twine. 

Heavy white paper. 

Brown wrapping paper. 



GENERAL SUPPLIES 

Soap ; mineral soap ; sal-soda ; ammonia ; kerosene ; 
matches ; gummed labels ; jars and glasses for fruit canning 
and jellies. Fine crash for glass towels; heavy crash for 
cooking utensils ; loose woven crash for dish cloths ; cheese 
cloth for strainers. Flour, sugar, salt, pepper, spices, bak- 
ing powder, cream of tartar, bicarbonate of soda, two kinds 
of cereals, rice, dried peas, tapioca, gelatine, salad oil, vine- 
gar, molasses, tea, coffee, chocolate, shells, and cocoa. 



4 



Equipment for One Pupil 



Small cutting board. 
Moulding board. 
Table knife, round end. 
Paring knife, pointed. 



Steel fork, — two or three 

prongs. 
Plated fork, — four prongs. 
Two tea spoons. 



74 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Table spoon. 

Wooden spoon. 

Wire spoon or egg beater. 

Tray. 

Biscuit cutter, 2 J in. 

Biscuit cutter, 1| in. 

Wire strainer, cup size. 

Two pint agate sauce pans. 

Two pint covered agate stew- 
pans. 

Quart covered agate stewpan. 

Round, deep, enamelled or 
agate baking pan, for pud- 
dings, scalloped dishes and 
braised meat. 

Quart agate double boiler with 
agate cover. 

Oblong agate baking pan with 
wire rack for cooking chick- 
ens, small cuts of meat, bacon 
and the like. 

Bread pan, brick shaped. 

Two round cake pans for jelly- 
cake and shortcake. 

Matches and match box. 

Cleaning pan. 

Soap dish. 

Dish towel. 

Nutmeg grater. 

Potato masher. 

Two measuring cups. 

1 qt. crockery mixing bowl. 



Two pt. mixing bowls. 

Salt box. 

Pepper shaker. 

Flour dredger. 

Tin plate. 

Crockery plate. 

Cup and saucer. 

Sauce dish. 

Tumbler. 

Flour sieve or wire strainer to 

fit over mixing bowl. 
Tin strainer, fine mesh, to fit 

over stewpan for steaming ; 

also for mashing vegetable 

pulp into soup. 
Round, small agate baking pan. 
Agate pie-plates, large and 

small, to cover baking pans. 
Agate colander with handle to 

fit into double boiler, for 

steaming, washing berries, 

and draining vegetables. 
Long shallow cake pan. 
Small enamelled baking cups for 

custards, gems, and small 

puddings. 
Small covered pails for scraps, 

one for two desks. 
Brush. 
Dishcloth. 
Cleaning cloth. 
Drying cloth. 



One dish will commonly answer for two pupils in many 
cases. 

The material for the utensils is indicated in the list, and 
labor-saving utensils under the recipes where they are used. 
The shape and size are important factors. In school kitchens 
large, heavy utensils are not needed. Mixing bowls of white 
crockeryware, striped with blue, are made in good shapes, 
with rounded bottom and flaring sides ; those of medium depth 
may be taken up easily between the thumb and little finger 
and are large enough for pupils to use and for most home pur- 
poses. These bowls are stronger, yet of lighter weight than 
those of the yellow ware. A lip on one side of the bowl is 



KITCHEN EQUIPMENT 75 

convenient at times but is not necessary, and is often the 
first part to be broken. 

All bowls for cooking purposes, and stewpans and cups as 
well, should have no groove or dividing line between the side 
and bottom ; and the latter should be broad, otherwise the 
dishes will tip over easily. 

Double boilers, baking pans, covers, and any utensils that 
have grooves and seams are difficult to clean. 

Learn to call utensils by their correct names. 

A sauce pan has a lip and a handle but no cover. It is 
used for sauces and mixtures that do not need covering and 
are stirred more or less. 

A stewpan has a handle and a tightly fitting cover, but 
no lip, for steam must be kept inside. 

A kettle has a bail and tight cover, but it is not so easy 
to hold in pouring as the stewpan for the bail is flexible and 
the steam envelops the hands. With a stewpan one may 
hold the firm handle in one hand and pour easily from the 
side. In draining off water from potatoes and the like hold 
the handle in one hand, lift the cover by the knob, draw it 
back slightly, then holding it down tightly, turn the pan 
completely upside down, and drain off every drop of the 
water without spilling the contents or scalding the hands. 

A preserving kettle has a bail and a lip for convenience in 
pouring ; but the cover seldom fits closely and it is a waste 
of heat to use the kettle for stewing. For large pieces of 
meat and any food of great weight, a kettle is suitable, for 
both hands will be needed in lifting it. 

THE SCHOOL KITCHEN 

The housekeeping duties in the school should be divided 
among the pupils in groups of four. One should have charge 
of the supplies ; another of the fire and stoves ; a third of the 
sink and general dishes, and the fourth of the sweeping 
and dusting. These assignments should be changed from 
time to time so that every pupil may become proficient in 
all parts of the work. Each pupil should take care of her 
own table and utensils. 



76 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Many of the latest school kitchens are marvels of con- 
venience, having enamelled sinks with hot and cold water, 
portable ovens and ample storage room at every group of two 
tables. But equally good work can be done with less elabo- 
rate equipment, and principles can be learned without any, 
if the practice work be done at home. 



CHAPTER XX 
PREPARATORY WORK 

The first step in cooking is important, for success or failure 
depends largely upon how we begin. Getting ready often 
takes more thought and time, than the actual process of 
cooking. 

The first preparatory step is Selection. Choice de- 
pends upon cost, quality, and food value; also upon the 
season, occupation, age, and physical condition. Questions 
of cost would lead us to buy round or rump steak of good 
quality, which has no waste, and may be bought in small 
portions, rather than sirloin which has inedible bone, a surplus 
of fat, lean meat of two extremes in quality, and which is 
sold only by the slice, compelling one to have the steak cut 
very thin, if limited as to its weight. 

Questions of quality would influence us to pay the staple 
price for fresh, sound fruits and vegetables instead of buying 
on bargain days those which are under or over ripe or of 
slack weight. But by learning how to judge of quality, and 
watching the market, real bargains may sometimes be found. 

When we have learned about food values we shall turn 
away from the tempting steaks and roasts and choose less 
expensive, but equally nutritious cuts, and utilize every 
part of them, by stewing or braizing; or buy oatmeal and 
wheat cereals instead of rice, or use rice when potatoes are 
high or of poor quality ; use suet or dripping in place of butter 
for shortening and sauteing; or fresh and dried fruits, in- 
stead of buying high-priced inferior fruit and spending time, 
fuel, and labor in canning it. 

Hand Work. Much of the success in the preparatory 
work of cooking depends upon the hands ; the ability to use 

77 



78 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

them easily, to handle culinary tools skillfully, to make 
every motion effective, and to keep the sense of touch keen, 
for the last is a sure guide in many processes. 

After selecting the food and planning the meal the next 
step is Separation. This is the beginning of hand work. 
Hand-made is a term signifying of fine quality ; work that 
has been done with more skill and painstaking than that 
done with machinery. Handsewed shoes, hand embroidery, 
hand carved furniture, are valued highly. Hands must be 
clean ; utensils must be clean, and food must be clean. The 
first hand work with many food materials is to make them 
clean, and to separate the edible part from that which is 
inedible. We remove earthy matter from vegetables grown 
under ground, by washing, scrubbing, or by picking leaves 
apart and rubbing and rinsing in several waters, or by remov- 
ing the skin or outer covering, of the edible portion. 

All these preparatory processes have certain names, 
indicating the special method of each ; and as they occur in 
all recipes and cook-books, beginners in cooking should learn 
the meaning of each term and just how to do each kind of 
hand work. Frequently the pupils will need to be shown 
how to hold their tools, for mechanical skill is not always 
intuitive. 

Pare potatoes, apples, pears by cutting just below the skin 
and down between the skin and substance in half -inch strips. 
Turnips and squash, cut across with a broad knife in half- 
inch slices and then pare. 

Scrape parsnips, carrots, and new potatoes by drawing 
the edge of the blade over the surface taking off a mere shav- 
ing. 

Peel boiled potatoes, scalded peaches and tomatoes, 
oranges, and bananas by taking an end of the loosely adhering 
skin between the knife and thumb and pulling or stripping 
it off. 

Shell beans and peas by slight pressure of thumb and finger 
until the pod opens. 

String : break off the end of the bean pod and pull off the 
stringy fibre which unites the pod. 

Husk corn by pulling off the green leaves and silky thread. 



PREPARATORY WORK 79 

The next step in preparatory work is Division. Slice vege- 
tables, fruit, bread, pineapples, and meat by cutting across 
the material into slices of uniform thickness. 

Dice by cutting slices into strips and strips into cubes. 

Chop tender meat, fruits, and vegetables by an up and 
down motion of a broad knife in a tray or on a board. 

Combination is the next step. 

Mix flour with sugar by stirring round and round; flour 
and butter by chopping or rubbing, flour with water by 
stirring water in slowly but smoothly. 

Cream butter and sugar by rubbing until soft. 

Beat by over and over motion with a spoon until the 
mixture is light. 

Combine by putting two mixtures together. 

Blend by stirring or beating thoroughly until all the 
materials are as one. 

Work with your head as well as your hands. Keep your 
mind on the work ; every sense on the alert, for the senses of 
sound and smell will tell when water has boiled out, fat is 
hissing, and food is burning. 

MEASUmNG 

Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in 
cooking. It is best secured by using gallon, quart, and pint 
measures, the half-pint cup and tablespoons and teaspoons 
of standard size. 

Measuring cups hold one half pint (milk measure) and 
may be bought in tin, enamelled, and glass ware, with handle. 
Some are divided on one side into quarters and on the other 
into thirds ; or you may find one cup in quarters and another 
in thirds. They should supersede entirely the use of tea 
cups, blue cups, and tumblers, which were called for in nearly 
all old time recipes. 

Tablespoons of the usual size are three inches long and 
one and three fourths inches wide. 

Teaspoons should measure two inches long and one and 
one fourth inches wide. 

Half -teaspoons should be in every kitchen ; they are like 



80 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

a teaspoon with the bowl cut through the middle from tip 
to handle, with an upright edge forming a back on the line 
of division. They are convenient, especially in measuring 
a half teaspoon of liquid. 

How to Measure. All measurements now taught in schools 
are level. 

Before measuring, sift dry materials like flour, meal, and 
powdered sugar, into a pan ; or, to save dishes, sift on to a 
piece of clean paper. Closely packed materials like mustard, 
soda, and baking powder, usually measured with a spoon 
dipped into the box — first stir them or break up lightly, then 
sift on to a paper and measure without pressure when filling 
the spoon. 

The results of careless measurement are most objectionable 
when there is an excess of salt, soda, or pepper. These should 
be measured with special care. 

Cup Measure. Hold the cup over the pan and fill with a 
spoon or scoop, even with the groove if a part of a cup is 
needed, and slightly more than full for a whole cup ; then with 
the back of a table knife held perpendicularly scrape off 
till it is level. Do not dip the cup into the material, nor 
shake it when filling, nor press the material in when levelling. 

A Scant Cup. Measure level, then remove two tablespoons 
of material. 

For liquids, stand the cup in a saucer and fill by pouring in 
from a pitcher or something with a lip, as much as it will hold 
without running over. 

To measure butter or lard, cut small portions and pack in 
closely, leaving no air spaces ; other solid materials like diced 
vegetables, meat, fish, and bread should be filled in lightly. 

Tablespoon and Teaspoon Measures. Fill by dipping the 
spoon with the left hand into dry material ; take up, and with 
a table knife in the right hand, scrape off all that is above 
the rim of the spoon. With butter, cream, molasses or other 
sticky substance, do not dip in, for a portion will cling to the 
under side of the spoon and if removed and used, you will 
have more than the correct proportion. With liquids like 
melted butter, and molasses, fill by pouring ; with soft butter 
and lard, fill by packing it level with a knife. 



PREPARATORY WORK 81 

Half Teaspoon. Fill teaspoon level, divide lengthwise, 
scrape out one half. One fourth teaspoon, divide the half 
portion crosswise, for one eighth, divide the quarter diagon- 
ally. 

Speck or Grains. This is the amount which may be taken 
up on the point of a paring knife or other quarter-inch surface ; 
or a slight shake from the pepper box. 

Weights. Pupils should be taught the use of scales ; they 
are necessary for meat and large quantities of fruit and 
vegetables; they are convenient and economical for butter 
and lard, as both time and material are wasted in packing 
and removing butter from a cup, and also from a tablespoon 
where several measurements are to be used. 

By memorizing the tables of weights and measures, and 
frequent comparisons of the two, and frequent practice in 
dividing by the eye, accuracy may be secured. We are 
expected to learn how to divide by the eye a loaf of bread or 
cake into slices of given thickness, pies into sixths, and to 
serve many foods in equal portions. It is equally easy and 
equally desirable to save time and labor by cutting a pound 
of butter into halves, quarters, and ounces; and by practice 
be able to cut off with two strokes of a knife a cube which is 
equivalent to two tablespoons. It should measure about 
one and one fourth inches each way. 

This cutting by the eye is very quickly done with print 
butter which is partly divided into quarter-pounds, sometimes 
into ounces. Divide the quarter-pound in the middle each 
way, and you have one ounce or two tablespoons, the measure 
most frequently used. 

With tub butter weigh out a pound, pack it into rectangular 
shape, then divide in halves, quarters, and again into quarters, 
until you have the ounce portion. Where frequent portions 
of measured butter are needed daily it is well to prepare 
a quantity at a time and keep them cool until needed. 

Butter which is soft and watery from insufficient pressure 
in the making, has less fat than that which is close-grained 
and has been thoroughly worked over. Therefore, no matter 
how accurately you measure the level spoon, the results will 
be dififerent with different butters. 



82 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



ABBREVIATIONS 

tbsp. stands for tablespoon. pk. stands for peek. 



tsp. 


'* " teaspoon. 


gal. " 


" gallon. 


spk. 


'* ** speck. 


qt. " 


" quart. 


c. 


' " cup. 


pt. " 


" pint. 


h. 


' ' ' hour. 


lb. 


** pound. 


m. 


* '* minute. 


oz. ** 


** ounce. 



Time may be saved in writing recipes by using T for table- 
spoon and small t for teaspoon. It is not necessary to use the 
suffix ful in writing or in recitation. We do not sa}^ a pintful 
nor a quartful ; why should we use it with cups or spoons ? 
If we say "" one cup '' we mean that it is full. If we wish to 
designate less than that amount, we give the fractional part, 
as one half, or two thirds, which means that part of a full cup. 



TABLES OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS 


3 tsp. 




= 1 tbsp. 


4 c. flour 


= 1 lb 


4 tbsp. 




= ic. 


2 c. solid butter 


= 1 lb 


8 tbsp. 




= 1 giU. 


2 c. gran, sugar 


= 1 lb 


2gi. 




= 1 c. 


2 c. milk or water 


= 1 lb 


2 c. 




= 1 pt. 


2 c. solid meat 


= 1 lb 


2pt. 




= 1 qt. 


1 tbsp. liquid 


= 1 oz 


4qt. 




= 1 galL 


4 tbsp. flour 


= 1 oz 


8qt. 




= 1 pk. 


2 tbsp. sugar 


= 1 oz 


4 tbsp. 




= 1 wineglass. 


2 tbsp. butter 


= 1 oz. 


9 large 


eggs 


= llb. 


Cube of butter IJ 


inch = 1 oz. 



PAKT I 

LESSON I 
FOOD 

Importance. The subject of food, which we are to study 
in these lessons, is of \dtal importance, for life itself depends 
upon a regular, proper, and continuous supply of food. 

Our health depends upon the purity, wise selection, and 
wholesome preparation of food. Our enjoyment in partaking 
of food depends upon its flavor and appearance. 

The amount of money which we may spend for the other 
necessities of life depends largely upon the cost of our food ; 
and the time and means for our mental and moral growth, 
our pleasures and our relaxations, depend upon the amount 
of time and work consumed in its preparation and conserva- 
tion. 

Source. Food is any substance, which, taken into the 
body, builds up the tissues, supplies energy in the form of 
heat, and power for work. 

The substances commonly used as food by man are classi- 
fied in several ways. 

Animal foods : Milk, eggs, meat, and fish. 

Vegetable foods : Potatoes, squash, spinach, apples, berries, 
nuts, corn, wheat, sugar, oil, etc. 

Natural foods are those which may be eaten without a 
more extended process than the raising of animals and the 
cultivation of vegetables ; as milk, eggs, ripe fruit, some green 
vegetables, and some meats and fish. 

Manufactured foods are prepared by various processes and 
usually in large quantities. Some of these processes are the 
making of flour and meal from wheat and corn ; butter and 

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84 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cheese from milk ; lard from pork fat ; sugar from cane juice ; 
oil from seeds, and jellies and syrups from fruits. 

These foods are securely packed in barrels, cartons, boxes, 
tubs, pails, cans, jars, and bottles, suitable for transportation 
and long-keeping, and are found in groceries, markets and 
provision stores, in every part of the world. 

Prepared foods. Many foods which in former years were 
prepared in the home, are now made ready for our use in fac- 
tories. They greatly reduce the work of the housekeeper, but 
should not be depended upon for the entire food supply. 

It is now possible to buy almost anywhere condensed milk, 
evaporated cream, a great variety of cooked breakfast- 
cereals, wafers, crackers, biscuit and other cooked flour mix- 
tures, cheese, canned meats, soups, fish, vegetables, fruits, 
jellies, preserves, puddings, confections, and sauces and other 
appetizers. Many of them need no heating ; some need only 
to be aerated, and others no preparation, except to be served 
attractively. Nearly all may be kept a long time if not 
opened. 

Bakeries supply us with bread, pies, cake, baked beans, 
cooked meats, and other perishable foods. Delicatessen 
shops make us familiar with foreign culinary methods, and 
the best of home cooking may be bought at tea rooms, or 
directly from the maker. 

Everywhere, more and more women are earning money in 
their homes by their skill in making jellies, cake, or other 
specialities. 

But from considerations of economy, individual tastes, and 
quality, the greater part of our food must still be prepared 
in the home. 

The school girls of to-day will be the house and home- 
keepers of to-morrow, and in these lessons they may learn 
how to select, prepare, combine and serve the daily food, in 
the most economical, wholesome, and attractive ways. 

Fresh fruits are valuable as foods on account of their acids, 
mineral matter, and appetizing flavor. They may well form 
a part of every meal, served raw or cooked in some simple way, 
and take the place of pickles with meat and rich pastry and 
puddings for dessert. 



FOOD 85 

Recipe, No. 1. How to Serve Fresh Fruits 

Oranges f Grapefruit, sind Melons. Serve very cold ; wipe; 
divide halfway down from the stem end ; remove seeds, and 
eat from the skin with a spoon, with or without sugar. 

Berries and Small Fruits. Pick over ; rinse ; hull ; drain, 
and serve with sugar. 

Cherries and Currants may be served with their stems and 
Grapes may be served in clusters. 

Plums, Pears, Apples, and Bananas. Wipe and serve 
whole, or if preferred, remove the skin just before serving. 

Peaches. Wipe and serve whole; or pare, slice, and 
sweeten if preferred. 

Pineapples. Cut in half-inch slices ; pare ; pick out the 
eyes ; discard the hard center ; add sugar, lemon juice, and 
a little water, and serve very cold. 

Bananas may be sliced and combined with mashed and 
sweetened Currants and Raspberries. 



LESSON II 
FOOD STUFFS 

Before taking up any form of cooking, let us see what our 
home supplies furnish, or what we may find at the grocer's, 
which needs no cooking and will be suitable for a school or 
picnic luncheon. 

First we should know what foods to choose. One girl 
may say, '" I'll choose cake and chocolates " ; and another 
says, '^ I like pickles and pie." 

But our choice should not be governed entirely by our 
preferences. We are to learn in these lessons what and 
how to choose, and therefore first we should know some- 
thing about the kinds of food we need and how they build 
up the body. 

The substances which are found in the foods commonly 
used are called Food Stuffs. They are classified for the 
purpose of study into five groups : Water, Proteins, Fats, 
Carbohydrates, and Mineral Matter. 

Water. You are all familiar with water and know that 
we drink it as a beverage and take it in many of our foods, 
especially in fruits and vegetables. 

Fats. You know about fat in butter and cream and the 
fat of meat ; also in the oil in nuts and in the oil which we 
eat on our salads. 

Protein may be a new word for you, but at present think 
of it as a substance having many forms ; like the lean of 
meat, the white of eggy the curd of milk which we use as 
cheese ; and then remember that it is also found combined 
with other food stuffs, in bread, beans, oatmeal, and many 
other foods, in forms which you will learn about later. 

Carbohydrates is a term which includes starch,_sugar, and 
cellulose. 

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FOOD STUFFS 87 

Starch is found in potatoes, rice, corn, bread, nuts, and in 
smaller proportions in many other foods. 

Sugar is found in the juices of plants and fruits, but we 
know it best in its manufactured form as granulated and 
maple sugar. 

Cellulose is the tough membrane in fruits and vegetables. 
You have seen it in the thread-like fibres of spinach and 
asparagus, and in the white covering of the divisions of an 
orange. 

Mineral matter is found in small portions in all of our foods. 
Among the most important are sulphur in eggs, iron in meat, 
calcium in milk, phosphorus in meat, fish, and cereals, 
and potassium in vegetables. These are all in too small 
quantities for you to distinguish but you are familiar with 
salt which is the only mineral which we add to our food. 

We need a mixture of all these food stuffs in our daily 
meals. Some foods which we eat contain several of these 
substances ; some have only one ; milk, cereals, and many 
foods have all of them, but not in the right proportion for all 
persons. 

How to plan our meals so that one food will supply what 
another food lacks, and give each person the right proportion 
of the food stuffs, is one of the most important things to learn 
about in cooking. 

COMBINATIONS OF PREPARED FOODS FOR SCHOOL 
OR PICNIC LUNCHEONS 

Many persons who have but little knowledge of food 
values will frequently, from custom or instinct, select suit- 
able combinations of food; for example, when away from 
home as meal time approaches, they will buy on the train 
or at some fruit vender's corner, the following foods, which 
we will class as 

Lunch, — Combination No. i. 

Popcorn, which contains starch, protein, fat, mineral. 

Peanuts, which contain fat, starch, protein, mineral. 

Chocolate Creams, " " sugar, fat, protein, mineral. 

Apples, " i' " water, sugar, acid, mineral. 



88 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

The first food stuff mentioned is the principal one in that 
food; i.e., starch is the principal part of popcorn, fat of 
peanuts, sugar of candy, and water of apples. 

Provided these foods are well masticated, and eaten as a 
meal, they afford a well balanced ration for an emergency. 
But to munch them continuously without giving the stom- 
ach time for rest, or to eat too large quantities of any one 
of them alone, or after a hearty meal, as is too frequently 
done, is unwise. 

Other combinations of prepared foods are given to illus- 
trate the various kinds of food in comxnon use, the grouping 
of seasonable and harmonious foods, and some methods of 
serving which will be found convenient where table appoint- 
ments are lacking. A brief outline of methods and a few 
recipes will be sufficient; the combination most seasonable 
and convenient may be selected for demonstration and the 
pupils may prepare the others at home, bringing them for 
the school lunch or for credit for home work. 

We must all like, or learn to like, and eat every kind of 
wholesome food ; then we will all like to work and play, to 
study and think, and will be kind and pleasant. 

But if we eat too much, or too little of any one kind of food 
stuff we will be lazy, stupid, and irritable. 



Lunch, — Combination No. 2. Wafers, cheese, jelly, 
banana, nuts, milk. 

Recipe, No. 2. Cheese and Jelly Sandwiches 

Use cream cheese or any common cheese grated ; spread 
half the wafers with cheese and half with jelly; chop the 
nuts fine and sprinkle them over the cheese, reserving part 
of them to use with the banana, if preferred ; put the 
wafers together, some with two of jelly or two of cheese, and 
some with one of each. Wrap them in the waxed paper 
lining of the wafer box. Provide a napkin, knife, fork, 
teaspoon, wooden plate, and enamelled cup, and also a suit- 
able box or basket. 



FOOD STUFFS 89 

Lunch, — Combination No. 3. Graham wafers, pea- 
nut butter, tomato salad, hermits, pear. 

Recipe, No. 3. Peanut Butter Wafers 

Spread the wafers with a thin layer of peanut butter and 
put together; peel the tomatoes, cut in halves, and dress 
them with any preferred salad dressing, or with sugar and 
salt. Put them in a jar with a tight cover; or take the 
dressing in a bottle, and the salt and sugar in paper bags. 

Recipe, No. 4. Quick Lemonade 

1 lemon. 
i c. sugar. 
1 pt. water. 

Wash and scrub the lemon ; parasites and particles of dust 
often lodge in the rough skin, and scrubbing is needed to 
remove them. 

Shave off one fourth of the thin yellow peel; put the 
sugar and peel into a pitcher and press with a small wooden 
masher until the sugar has absorbed some of the oil from the 
peel, — this is to give flavor. Cut the lemon in halves ; 
squeeze the juice out with a lemon squeezer ; stir it into the 
sugar; add the cold water and one tablespoon of chipped 
ice, and serve very cold. 



LESSON III 

PROPORTION OF FOOD STUFFS IN DAILY 

MEALS 

We may have some idea of this proportion from our instinct 
or appetite when we are in a normal condition of health. 
We all like a little butter on our bread, for wheat has a small 
amount of fat ; — no one would relish a thick slab of butter. 
We generally eat about one fourth as much meat as of the 
combined amount of potatoes, vegetables, and dessert. 

The proportion of these food stuffs varies with persons of 
different ages and occupations ; but an average proportion 
is about four ounces of proteins, four ounces of fats, and 
fourteen to sixteen ounces of carbohydrates. 

Perhaps you will understand it better if you think of the 
daily meals in a family of average health and intelligence. 
If we could measure the food as it is prepared in such a home 
and separate it into the several food stuffs, we would find 
that the proportion is about as follows : 

One half cup of protein made up chiefly from that in the 
milk, cereal, and egg for breakfast, meat or fish, and beans for 
dinner, and smaller portions of protein in the cereal, bread, 
milk, cheese, and other foods. These protein foods build 
muscle and other tissues in our bodies and are necessary for 
growth. 

One half cup of fats made up of the cream, butter, fat of 
meat, nuts, and oil. These foods keep us warm. 

From four to six cups of the carbohydrates, chiefly made 
up from the starch and cellulose in cereals, potatoes, bread, 
puddings, cake and fruit, and the sugar we eat with our 
cereal, cocoa, fruit, and in our candy, cake, and desserts. 
These foods also keep us warm and make us strong and 

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PROPORTION OF FOOD STUFFS IN DAILY MEALS 91 

active, ready to play hard and to work. All these carbo- 
hydrates make us fat, if we eat too large a proportion of 
them and do not exercise. To express it briefly, they give 
us energy. 

The amount of mineral matter taken daily we cannot 
estimate, but generally we have all we need if we have a 
variety of food. Mineral salts or ash build up the bones 
and certain tissues like hair, teeth, and nails, and regulate 
the body processes by keeping the blood and digestive 
fluids in proper condition. 

We take daily /rom two to three quarts of water; a small 
portion of it in all our solid food and a large amount in milk, 
fruit, and vegetables, and we should take at least six glasses 
of clear water during the day. 

This water and that which we have taken in the juices of 
fruits and vegetables, with the mineral matter which they 
contain, keep the blood clean and able to carry the nourish- 
ment from the digested food to all parts of the body. 

The cellulose which we take in fruits, vegetables, and 
cereals, does not build up the body nor make us strong, but 
it gives the bulk needed in the stomach and intestines while 
other foods are being digested and absorbed. 

By keeping this simple proportion in mind, we can under- 
stand all that is necessary to know until we have time to 
make special study of this subject. From it we learn that 
when we eat eggs and meat at every meal we have had too 
much protein, and if our dinner is potatoes, rice, and bananas, 
or our supper mostly sugar and cream, we have eaten too 
much carbohydrate. 

One reason for grouping food stuffs in this way is because 
each class of food, when eaten, has a certain effect on our 
bodies. Some food stuffs do several things. Proteins, fats 
and carbohydrates all keep us warm and help us work ; but 
proteins alone make muscle and other tissue. 

Protein therefore is the food stuff that we must have every 
day in some form ; and fortunately we can find it in an inex- 
pensive as well as in a costly form. Do not think of it only 
as meat. 

These food stuffs are not found alone except in a few 



92 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cases but they are wonderfully mixed and are hard to 
separate. They grow together; they are eaten together, 
and therefore it is natural and right that we should study 
them together. 

While a knowledge of dietetics and its terms, such as cal- 
ories, is desirable in an advanced course in cooking the home- 
maker will find it advisable, when a special diet is needed, to 
consult the physician ; it is only necessary to bear in mind 
the rough principles of a balanced diet, for the average healthy 
family. 

It may help the younger pupils to understand and remem- 
ber the distinctions and uses of food stuffs, if we think of them 
in this way. 

In the body : 

Protein makes and mends. 
Fats heat and help. 
Carbohydrates warm and work. 
Water carries and cleans. 
Minerals frame and form. 

Afternoon Tea, — Combination No. 4. Wafers, 
sardines, olives, gingersnaps, plums or raisins, 
lemonade. 

Recipe, No. 5. Sardine Sandwiches 

Remove the skin and back-bone from plain or smoked 
sardines ; mash to a paste ; add to each tablespoon of the 
paste one-half teaspoon of lemon juice ; spread it on any thin 
unsweetened wafers ; put two together and wrap in waxed 
paper. 

Recipe, No. 6. Lemonade for Picnics 

Cut lemons in halves ; remove seeds ; press cut-side on a 
glass lemon grinder, turning it round till the pulp is all out. 
Add to the juice twice the amount of sugar ; stir until dis- 
solved ; bottle it and in serving dilute it with four parts of 
cold water. 



PROPORTION OF FOOD STUFFS IN DAILY MEALS 93 

Lunch, — Combination No. 5. Brown bread, canned 
chicken, celery, macaroons, ice cream, cantaloupe. 

Recipe, No. 7. Chicken Sandwich 

Cut very thin slices of brown bread; spread generously 
with creamed butter; chop the chicken and chop also part 
of the celery; mix it with the chicken; salt it well and 
spread it on the bread; wrap in a damp napkin. Use 
canned tongue in the same way if preferred. 

Recipe, No. 8. Fruit Ice Cream Made in a Pail (In- 
dividual Recipe.) 

J c. cream. 2 tbsp. banana or peach pulp. 

2 tsp. sugar. i tsp. lemon juice, 

spk. salt. 

Rock salt and crushed ice, amount depends on size of 
outer pail. 

Stir sugar and salt into the cream ; peel and mash the fruit ; 
sift if lumpy; add lemon juice and more sugar, amount 
depends on the fruit. Mix well; beat till foamy; turn it 
into the pint can or pail, which should be water tight, with a 
tight cover fitting over (not into) the pail. Set this pail 
into a larger one : — the space between should be about 
two inches wide. Crush the ice in a strong burlap bag by 
pounding with a wooden mallet till fine. Remove small 
pail and cover bottom of large pail with ice. Replace the 
other pail. 

Mix one cup of salt with three cups of ice and fill the space 
between the pails ; pound it down with a stick, add ice to 
cover the inner pail. Turn the pail back and forth for five 
minutes ; push off the ice ; wipe the top ; open and scrape 
the frozen cream from the sides to the middle. Cover and 
turn again ; repeat this until the cream is all hard. 

Follow the same method of packing if you have a 
patent freezer, increasing the amount of salt and ice as 
needed. 



94 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOlC 

Afternoon Tea, — Combination No. 6. White bread, 
scraped raw beef, lettuce, cookies, peaches, pe- 
cans. 

Recipe, No. 9. Scraped Beef Sandwich 

Select lean juicy beef from the top of the round near the 
rump end. Cut it in thin strips ; scrape the pulp free from 
the fibre; season it highly with salt and pepper, or with 
salad dressing. Put it between thin slices of white bread. 

Cut the bread thin, spread with salad dressing ; cover 
half of the slices with the scraped beef and half with lettuce. 
Put together and wrap in a damp napkin. 

Recipe, No. 10. Preparation of Lettuce and Celery 

Lettuce, Pick off each leaf ; remove decayed portions ; 
wash in cold water, turning each leaf inside down so grit can 
drop out; drain and wrap in a napkin and lay it in the 
refrigerator until needed ; or put it into a tin pail ; cover 
well, and keep it down cellar. 

Celery, Trim off leaves and root ; scrape off the browned 
part ; wash and wrap in napkin, as for lettuce. Scrape only 
the portion needed for immediate use. 

Questions on Lessons I, II, and III 

Why should we study food ? What mineral do we add to our 

What is food? food? 

Name some foods which you Is pepper a mineral food? 

know and where obtain them. Why do we need to know about 

What foods are eaten un- these food stuffs ? 

cooked? How may we serve a picnic 

Name some of the foods which lunch as daintily as on the 

are manufactured by the dining table? 

various processes. Why do we wrap wafer sand- 

What foods do we buy in bar- wiches in waxed paper and 

rels? tubs? bottles? bread sandwiches in a damp 

Name the five groups of food napkin? Give an original 

stuffs. lunch menu which will con- 

What foods contain the most tain all the food stuffs using 

starch? protein? fat? only foods which need no 

What mineral matter do we find further cooking. 

in eggs ? vegetables ? 



LESSON IV 

NATURAL FOODS 

While we are studying the kitchen equipment, or some 
methods of cleaning, we should also learn more about the 
natural foods, or those which require no cooking. The 
following recipes show types of each of the food stuffs. We 
must keep in mind through all the lessons that these food 
stuffs are seldom found alone and that when we speak of 
certain foods as belonging to the proteins or the fats, — we 
mean that the edible part, which is all we can utilize, contains 
a large proportion of that particular food stuff. 

Recipe, No. 11. Sliced Apples 

Cut four large, tart apples in eighths ; pare and core, and 
cut across sections in thin slices, less than an eighth of an 
inch. Let the slices fall into a shallow earthen dish, and 
as soon as one apple is sliced, sprinkle over it a little salt 
and an even coating of sugar. Mix the juice of one small 
lemon with half a cup of v\^ater, and put a quarter of it 
over the apple. Then repeat until all the apples and water 
are used. Cover and after five minutes drain off the syrup 
and toss the apples over and pour the syrup over again. Re- 
peat this at intervals of five minutes, several times, then 
taste and add more sugar or lemon to the syrup as preferred. 

This may be served as a sauce for dessert or be combined 
with bananas. Or you may use less sugar and water ; add a 
little paprika, and serve it on a bed of shredded lettuce as a 
salad, and eat with scraped raw beef sandwiches. Those 
who cannot eat oil, and who prefer sugar and lemon on 
lettuce, will find the apple a pleasant addition. 

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96 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 12. Creamed Walnuts 

The white of one egg and an equal amount of cold water, 
flavored with one teaspoon of lemon or vanilla. Beat until 
mixed thoroughly, then beat in confectioner's sugar, sifted, 
until the dough is stiff enough to mould. Break off pieces 
the size of a nutmeg, roll them in the palm of the hands until 
smooth and round. Press the halved walnut-meats on each 
side, letting the cream show slightly between the meats. 
One egg will require about one and one-fourth pounds of 
sugar. 

Recipe, No. 13. Creamed Dates, Almonds, etc. 

Stone the dates and shell the almonds. Make the sugar 
dough as directed for creamed walnuts. Put a ball of the 
dough into the center of the date and cover the almonds with 
the dough. Creamed nut-cakes may be prepared by stirring 
the chopped nuts into the dough. Press it out into a flat 
sheet three fourths of an inch thick ; then cut in inch squares. 

Recipe, No. 14. Egg-nog 

Beat the yolk of one egg^ add one tablespoon sugar and 
beat till creamy. Add one half cup of milk. Beat the 
white of the egg till foamy (but not stiff and dry) and stir 
it in lightly. 

Recipe, No. 15. Fruit Salad in Lemon Cups 

Allow one half a lemon for each serving and select such as 
are fine and uniform in size. Use equal portions of cherries, 
strawberries, and bananas, if made in summer, or of peaches, 
plums, and grapes, if in September. Cut off a thin slice 
from each end of the lemon so it will stand upright, cut in 
halves, and scoop out the juice and pulp and all the inner 
membranes, and strain the juice. Stone the cherries and 
halve them. Hull and clean the berries, cut them in halves, 
and remove the surplus seeds. Cut the bananas of the same 
size as the others and mix all together. If late fruits are 



NATURAL FOODS 97 

used, peel peaches and plums and cut small ; skin and seed the 
grapes. Put a shake of salt and a generous sprinkling of 
sugar over each layer and the strained lemon juice over the 
whole. Let it stand in a cold place until the sugar is dis- 
solved. Then fill the lemon cups with the mixture and put a 
tiny tip of fresh, crisp water-cress on the top. Cut some 
blocks of bread, one inch thick, two wide, and about four 
long; hollow the centers enough to hold the cups, and cut 
the ends in thin slices nearly through, leaving just enough 
so they can be pulled off easily while eating the contents of 
the cups. 

Recipe, No. 16. Peach or Strawberry Whip 

Stir one cup of clear strawberry juice or of peach pulp into 
one pint of thick double cream; add one cup of powdered 
sugar and whip till stiff ; then add beaten whites of two eggs 
and continue beating till very stiff. Turn into a deep glass 
dish and garnish with large whole berries or halved peaches. 

Ice Cream 

Some cooked foods and combinations of uncooked foods 
are more palatable when cold, especially in hot weather. 
These foods may be made very cold by freezing and they 
are called ice creams and water ices. Ice creams are mix- 
tures of cream, milk, eggs, sugar, and flavoring. Water- 
ices or sherbets are mixtures of water, fruit-juice, and sugar. 

The Freezer, A patent freezer is a convenient article to 
have but it is not a necessity. A small quantity of cream 
may be frozen in a covered can or pail that is water tight 
by surrounding it with three parts of crushed ice and one 
part of coarse salt, and stirring it frequently. 

Salt makes the ice melt and the melting ice dissolves the 
salt ; the two in changing from the solid to the liquid form, 
lose some of their heat, and the brine is many degrees colder 
than the ice. The brine absorbs heat from the can and soon 
the contents begin to freeze. The finer the ice is crushed the 
quicker it melts ; and the more the mixture is stirred the 
sooner all parts become chilled. 



98 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 17. Fruit Ice Cream 

3 oranges. i can apricots. 

3 lemons. 3 c. sugar. 

3 bananas. 3 c. cold water. 

Place a strainer over a large bowl ; squeeze into it the juice 
of the oranges and lemons ; then add the bananas and apricots, 
and rub them through the strainer. Add the cold water to 
help in the sifting. Add the sugar, and when it is dissolved, 
turn the mixture in the freezer can, and freeze as directed. 



LESSON V 

CANNING AND PRESERVING 

As water forms so large a part of the daily diet, aside from 
its use as a beverage, we study this food stuff first. Fruits 
contain a large amount of water, and the study of their 
preservation should come early in the school year, while 
fresh fruits are obtainable. 

UTENSILS FOR CANNING 

Granite or porcelain-lined kettles, with bales and lips for 
convenience in pouring, and that are free from all blemish or 
break in the glazing, are almost essential for this work. They 
should be broad that considerable surface may be exposed 
to the heat, and deep enough to prevent boiling over. Can 
but a little at a time, not more than two quarts. If you have 
a large amount to cook, have a kettle holding six or eight 
quarts, one holding three, and two holding two quarts. 

A small, sharp-pointed knife for paring, also an old, silver- 
plated knife ground to a fine edge, will be found convenient 
for articles which a steel knife might discolor. 

For convenience you should have wooden spoons, small 
and large, with perforations, a wire spoon, large and small 
silver spoons, scales, a hair-sieve, a silver nutpick or skewer, a 
granite colander, a wooden masher, and several yards of 
coarse and fine cheese cloth, and fine cotton and woolen 
flannel. 

Quart and pint glass jars, with large tops, are the best for 
general use. See that the glass covers are free from nicks, 
the spring or clamp in perfect order, and that the rubbers are 
new and free from cracks. A few jars of the two-quart size 
will not be amiss if you plan to can large fruit whole. Two 

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100 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

sizes of jelly tumblers are desirable, with good paper, and 
suitable labels and paraffin for covering. 

Use pure granulated sugar and avoid that with a blue 
tinge. 

Do not use tin, iron, or brass utensils, and avoid anything 
that will savor of uncleanliness. 

It is mistaken economy to put in even one speckled or 
partly decayed berry or bit of fruit, for the germs of decay 
may extend further than your cutting and spoil the whole. 

Use the fruit as soon as possible after gathering. Fruit 
is better a little under ripe than over ripe, and should be 
gathered in fair weather, and be washed carefully and 
thoroughly. 

In canning all fruits care should be taken to boil the mate- 
rial slowly. 

PREPARATORY WORK 

Wash and scald all utensils, for thorough sterilization is 
needed, especially in the canning of vegetables. Put the 
jars and glasses on a rack in a large boiler on the stove and 
cover them with cold water. Let them remain at least half 
an hour after boiling begins. Treat the covers and rubber 
rings in the same way, and put all together in a pan for con- 
venience in removing. Jars may remain submerged in the 
boiling water until ready to be filled. Lift out the number 
needed for the first amount of fruit and stand them on a 
towel in a pan holding an inch of hot water, with covers near. 

COOKED FRUIT 

Turn out the water from the jar ; adjust the rubber, and 
fill nearly to the top with cooked fruit. Pour small fruits 
in with a cup and through a wide-mouthed funnel. Pack 
in halved or whole fruits carefully, best side up, by using 
two tablespoons. Fill to overflowing with the syrup, but 
if there is not enough add a little boiling water, which should 
be at hand ready for the purpose. Put on the cover ; adjust 
the spring on the can ; wipe clean and stand them on their 
tops. When cool tighten the cover, and if a screw cover is 



CANNING AND PKESERVING 101 

used, give it an extra twist occasionally. If after two days 
no juice has leaked out, the jars may be considered tight. 

FOOD COOKED IN THE JAR 

Sterilize the jars, which should be wide and fitted with 
glass rather than metal covers, and fastened with springs. 
Select sound, firm, well-shaped fruit and use it whole or in 
halves. Pack it tightly in the jars. For quart jars, dissolve 
one half cup of sugar in one cup of hot water for closely packed 
fruit ; one pint of water for whole fruit. Use more sugar for 
very acid fruits. Fill the jars ; put on the covers lightly ; 
stand the jars on a rack in a boiler. Turn in water to come 
half way up, — it must not boil into the jars. Cover the 
boiler and after boiling begins, cook the fruit one hour, or 
longer if not tender. Remove the jars when cool ; add syrup 
or boiling water until overflowing and adjust the covers and 
springs. 

CANNED VEGETABLES 

Follow the same methods for canning peas, string beans, 
and sweet corn, using salt in the water in place of sugar and 
continue the boiling for three hours. 

Reheat as directed in following paragraph. 

The former failures in canning vegetables and fruits 
were due to a lack of knowledge concerning bacteria and the 
necessity of destroying all micro-organic life in the product 
to be canned by sterilization. Sterilization means the 
destruction of all germ life and in canning all must be de- 
stroyed on the cans and utensils as well as upon the article to 
be preserved. It has been learned that while many germs 
may be killed by boiling once, some of their spores, or off- 
shoots find this temperature best suited for their growth and 
germinate rapidly. For this reason it is now the practice 
to re-heat the food in the cans at intervals of twenty-four 
hours. Put the jars into warm, not hot, water as on the first 
heating and the temperature should be kept at 165° Fah. 
for fifteen minutes each time. This process is called ^' In- 
termittent Sterilization." 



102 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 18. Canned Tomatoes (1) 

Tomatoes should be canned when the fruit is in the best 
condition and the first fruit ripened is better than the late 
growth. 

Have a large kettle of rapidly-boiling water on the stove. 
Wipe the tomatoes, fill a wire basket with them, and plunge 
it into the boiling water until the skins begin to crack. Then 
plunge into cold water, and remove the skins and the hard 
part under the stem. 

Mash thoroughly, and let them boil quickly until per- 
fectly soft, but not enough to evaporate all the liquid. Then 
season as for the table. To every quart, allow one teaspoon 
of salt, one quarter teaspoon of pepper, and half a cup of sugar. 
Cook five minutes longer, then fill the jars nearly to the top. 
Run a spoon handle or table knife around the inside of the 
jar to remove the air bubbles. Fill with fruit until it flows 
over. Seal, wipe and turn over until cold. Wrap the jars 
in paper and keep in a dark place. 

Recipe, No. 19. Canned Tomatoes (2) 

Prepare as in the first recipe, but season only with salt. 
Let them boil down until quite thick, then fill the jars nearly 
to the top, add boiling water to the brim, and seal at once. 
Be careful that no seeds or pulp run over the edge between 
the glass and the rubber. Keep the jars wrapped in paper 
in a cool place. Use these only for soups and sauces. 

Recipe, No. 20. Canned Whole Tomatoes (3) 

Scald and peel ; put them into large jars ; fill with hot 
water ; set them in a large boiler with something beneath to 
keep them from the bottom, — a folded towel or a meat rack. 
Surround with water and boil two hours. Fill to overflowing 
with boiling water and seal. 

Recipe, No. 21. Canned Peaches 

Select large yellow peaches, deep red on one side and around 
the stones. Pare, put into cold water until you have enough 



CANNING AND PRESERVING 103 

to fill a jar. Allow one cup sugar and two cups water to 
each jar of whole fruit. Boil the water and sugar, skim, 
cook the peaches until well scalded. Empty the jars and 
fill with cooked fruit; put on the rubber, and cover while 
you boil down the syrup until red, strain it, and fill jars to 
overflowing and seal. 

Recipe, No. 22. Canned Blackberries 

Allow one cup of sugar and one half cup of water to each 
quart of blackberries. Boil and skim the syrup, then add 
the berries, as many as will cover the surface, cook slowly 
ten minutes ; then skim them out, and add others until all 
are cooked. Put all back into the kettle, let them boil up 
once, then pour quickly into the jars, and seal immediately. 

Follow the same method for strawberries. 

Canned Fruit 

Canned fruit should be opened some time before using, 
that it may be aerated and the flavor improved. There 
has been a strong feeling against the use of fruit prepared 
in tin cans. Chemists have examined canned fruit as soon as 
opened, and found it harmless ; but if the fruit be left in the 
tin can, the action of the air causes the acid in the fruit to 
act upon the metal and form a poisonous compound. Care 
should be taken to remove the fruit from the can as soon as 
opened. 

Cans should be slightly concave on the ends. If the ends 
bulge the contents are not in good condition. 

Recipe, No. 23. Preserved Hard Pears and Quinces 

Cook first until tender in clear water as cooking in syrup 
hardens them. Allow equal weights of sugar and fruit, and 
water to cover the fruit. Dissolve the sugar in the water 
and bring to boiling point. 

Remove the scum as it forms. Put the fruit into the jars 
when it is tender. Boil the syrup down until of a rich color 
and strain it into the jars. Cover and seal as directed for 
canning. 



LESSON VI 



FRUITS 





CHEMICAL COMPOSITION * 






Fruits 




Water 


Pro- 
tein 


F- H?.\r;S ASB 


Apples . . 


. . 


. 63.3 


0.3 


0.3 


10.8 0.3 


Oranges . . 








. 63.4 


0.6 


0.1 


8.5 0.4 


Bananas 








48.9 


0.8 


0.4 


14.3 0.6 


Grapes . . 








58.0 


1.0 


1.2 


14.4 0.4 


Strawberries 








85.9 


0.9 


0.6 


7.0 0.6 


Raspberries 








85.8 


1.0 




12.6 0.6 


Raisins . . 








. 13.1 


2.3 


3.0 


68.5 3.1 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 




Carbo- 
hydrates 


Ash 


Straw- 


Raisins 


Raisins 




Raisins 


Raisins 


berries 


Grapes 


Grapes 




Grapes 




Bananas 


Raspberries 


Rasp- 


Straw- 




Bananas 




Straw- 


Oranges 


berries 


berries 


Rasp- 




berries 


Apples 


Straw- 


Bananas 


berries 




Rasp- 


Grapes 


berries 


Apples 




Apples 




berries 


Bananas 


Bananas 


Oranges 


1 


Oranges 


. 


Oranges 


Raisins 


Oranges 


Rasp- 




Straw- 


1 


Grapes 




Ap 


pie 


s 


berries 


berries 




Apples 



JELLY 

Jellies are made from fruits which are rich in pectine 
and which contain the correct amount of acid. Pectine 
is one of the minor carbohydrates and is sometimes called 
vegetable jelly. It is found in the juice, skin, and core of 
fruits when not quite or just ripe. 

Pectine is soluble in the fruit juices but has the power 

* The Tables in the book give the percentages of the various food 
stuffs, and also the relative place of each food under each food stuff; the 
food named first in every instance containing the most of the food stuff 
named at the top of the column. 

104 



FRTTITS 105 

of gelatinizing into a stiff jelly when the acid juice is heated 
with sugar and then cooled. The amount of acid diminishes 
as fruits ripen and the pectine also changes. 

Fruits which have ripened fully and are quite sweet, or 
which do not contain pectine will not stiffen into a firm 
jelly. They become merely a thick, gummy paste, or syrup, 
quite unlike the transparent, tender, perfect semi-solid jelly, 
which holds its shape when turned out, yet quivers and may 
be cut into sparkling slivers without liquefying. But by 
combining these fruit juices with those of a more acid nature 
a firm jelly may be made. 

The best fruits for jelly are currants, sour apples ripened 
in late summer, wild grapes, plums, low, wild blackberries, 
crab apples, and quinces. 

Raspberries with currants ; barberries with apples ; pear, 
peach and pineapple wath apples; rhubarb grown in Sep- 
tember combined with apples are combinations which have 
been tried with success. 

Equal measures of juice and granulated sugar warmed in 
the oven is the general proportion for currants and quinces ; 
one fourth less sugar for apple and one fourth more sugar 
for barberries and wild grapes. 

Currants, raspberries, and other juicy fruits need little or 
no water, merely enough to cover the pan and help in the 
slight heating needed to start the juice. 

With apples, quinces, and other firm fruits, wash, but 
do not pare except to remove any defective spots ; discard 
the seeds in quinces; add water to nearly cover the fruit, 
and stew until tender. 

Drain and let the juice drip without pressure. 

When using a mixture of fruit juices, or you are uncertain 
of the presence of pectine, boil a little of the juice and when 
cool add an equal amount of grain alcohol ; insert a spoon 
and if a gelatinous mass appears the juice contains pectine. 

When fruit is over-ripe, or gathered just after a rain and 
is watery, or is boiled too long, the juice is not likely to 
stiffen. Boiling violently causes crystals to appear after 
it cools, particularly in ripe grapes. Do not stir it when 
boiling as the scum will be mixed in and the jelly will be 



106 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

tough and coarse. If the scum is not removed the jelly 
will not be clear. Boil not more than a quart at a time, 
and have everything ready; sugar heating, glasses in hot 
water — before boiling begins. Jelly is done when it breaks 
in drops or flakes from the spoon, or stiffens when dropped 
on a cold plate. 

Follow the directions for the various kinds of jelly as given 
in the recipes. 

After filling jelly glasses, put them on a tray and cover 
with cheese cloth until the jelly is firm. Then handle with 
care, for the jelly in hardening adheres to the glass, making 
it air tight around the edge. Jellies often spoil because of 
too great haste to see the inside texture. 

Melted paraffin poured hot over the fruit will seal securely, 
but some prefer to cover the jelly with paraffin paper. See 
that the cover fits the glass, or cover it with paper cut one 
half inch larger than the glass top. Moisten the edge with 
paste and put it over, pressing it to the glass in uniform folds. 
Label glasses with name of fruit and date. 

Recipe, No. 24. Apple Jelly 

After washing the apples, wipe, and remove the stems 
and blossom end. Cut the apples into quarters, and place in 
a granite kettle with enough water nearly to cover them. 
Cook slowly until the apples are soft ; crush and drain 
through a sieve ; then lay a cheese cloth over a bowl ; turn 
in the juice ; tie the corners of the cheese cloth together and 
hang it where it may drip. Measure the juice and boil it 
fifteen minutes. Add an equal measure of heated granu- 
lated sugar and boil slowly five minutes. Skim and pour 
into sterilized glasses. 

Recipe, No. 25. Plum Jelly 

Put the plums, which may be either damsons, red, or 
beach plums, into the preserving kettle, with water to cover. 
Heat slowly, and simmer until the plums will mash readily, 
then turn into a flannel jelly-bag or a cheese cloth strainer 
as for apple jelly, and drip until the pulp is dry. Boil the 



FRUITS 107 

juice rapidly twenty minutes, skimming often. Remove it 
from the fire, measure, and return it to the fire ; as soon as it 
boils again, add as many bowls of sugar as you have of 
juice, and boil until it jellies, which will be fifteen or twenty 
minutes. Pour into tumblers, and stand aside two or three 
days, then cover with paper, and put in a cool, dry place. 

Recipe, No. 26. Grape Juice 

Select sound, sweet grapes, well ripened but not over- 
ripe. Wash, pick from the stems and put them into an 
enamel preserving pan over a slow fire. Mash with a pestle 
and heat, not boil, about fifteen minutes, or until seeds 
are freed from pulp. Lay a large square of cheese cloth 
over a bowl, turn in the grapes, tie the corners and hang 
to drip without pressure for twenty-four hours. Next 
morning heat juice to boiling point and turn immediately 
into sterilized jars or bottles and seal. This is pure grape 
juice; in serving dilute with water and chipped ice and 
sweeten to taste. 

If a weaker quality is desired, allov/ one quart cold water 
to eight pounds Concord grapes. Wash, stem, heat, mash 
and boil fifteen minutes. Strain, cool, and press out all the 
juice. Allow one cup sugar to one quart juice, boil fifteen 
minutes, remove scum, fill sterilized bottles, and seal. 

To Seal Bottles with Wax 

Allow equal parts of shoemaker's wax and rosin. Melt 
them in an old tin convenient to keep the mixture. Fill 
bottles with hot fruit, press the corks in tight, — use new 
or unbroken corks, — dip the corked bottle in the mixture 
until the edge of glass is covered. Reheat the mixture 
whenever used. 

Questions on Lessons IV, V, and VI 

What is the greatest food stuff from mould and decay? 

in apples and strawberries? Why should vegetables in cans 
Why should we sterilize all be boiled more than once? 

utensils in canning ? Can you tell what makes germs 
Why should all fruit be free grow? 



LESSON VII 
COOKING 

Cooking is the preparation of food by the aid of heat. 
The word is derived from the Latin coquo, meaning ^' to boil, 
bake, seethe, dry, scorch, or ripen/' Cooking is usually 
done by the application of heat. The ripening and the dry- 
ing process which some foods undergo by the direct heat of 
the sun, is a kind of natural cooking. The heat of the living 
animal also does its part in preparing other varieties of food 
for our use ; but the greater part of the food we eat is cooked 
or prepared for us by the more rapid action of artificial heat. 

We cook our food for several reasons. 

To develop and improve the flavor and odor. 
To make it look more attractive. 
To have a part of it warm. 
To kill any parasites and disease germs. 
To make some foods more digestible and thus more nourish- 
ing. 
To keep foods which are perishable that we may enjoy 
them when out of season. 

The proper cooking of much of our food depends also 
upon the use of water or some other liquid, combined with 
heat, and upon the free action of pure air during the process 
of cooking. 

METHODS OF COOKING 

Heat is applied to food through hot air, hot liquids, and 
hot metals. 

The hot air methods are : 

Broiling or Grilling ; cooking over glowing coals, or under 
gas flame, 

108 



COOKING 109 

Roasting ; cooking before glowing coals, in open pan. 
Baking ; cooking in air radiating from hot oven, sometimes 

called roasting when applied to meat. 
The hot liquid methods are : 

Boiling ; cooking in boiling water, or other liquid. 
Simmering or Coddling ; cooking slowly in large amount of 

water, below boiling point. 
Stewing ; cooking slowly in small amount of water below 

boiling point. 
Steaming ; (a) moist, cooking in steamer directly over steam, 
(b) dry, cooking in double boiler surrounded by 
steam. 
Frying ; cooking by immersion in deep hot fat. 
Sauteing ; cooking in small amount of hot fat and turning 

food over. 
The hot metal methods are : 

Pan Broiling ; cooking in a very hot pan, slightly greased. 
Pan Baking ; cooking on hot griddle with little or no fat. 
Other methods are combinations of two or more. 

Braising ; stewing and baking in rich gravy in covered pan. 
Pot Roasting, or Smothering; stewing in little water in 

closely covered pan with frequent boihng down and 

browning. 
Fricasseeing ; frying and stewing or Brown Stew ; stewing 

and fr3dng ; White Stew. 
En Casserole; broiling or frying; then baking in rich 

gravy in covered dish suitable for serving. 
Planking; broiling or baking on hot board; sometimes 

before a hearth fire. 
Toasting ; browning of bread or cooked starchy mixtures 

over the fire. 
Popping ; quick bursting of corn kernels over hot fire. 
Baking is also done in a Dutch kitchen, before a hearth 

fire, in hot ashes, over hot stones, and in steam from 

seaweed, closely covered. 
Fireless Cooker; short boiling on stove, then stewing or 

cooking at low temperature for a long time in the con- 
fined heat of a cooker, and sometimes finishing with 

quick baking. 



110 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



TEMPERATURES USED IN COOKING 

Freezing point of Water, 32° Fah. 
Mixture of Rock Salt and Ice, 15° to 20° Fah. 
Blood temperature, 98.6° Fah. 
Simmering point, 185° to 210° Fah. 
Stewing and CoddUng, 185° to 210° Fah. 
Boiling, 212° Fah. 
Steaming, moist, 212° Fah. 
Steaming, dry, 200° to 210° Fah. 
Frying, 350° to 400° Fah. 
Baking, 300° to 450° Fah. 
Roasting and Broiling, 800° to 1000° Fah. 
Remember the temperature increases in this order : sim- 
mer, stew, steam, and boil ; then bake, fry, roast, and broil. 
Proteins coagulate in a temperature of 158° to 167° Fah. 
Starch gelatinizes at 149° to 185° Fah. 
Ferments are destroyed at 160° and up. 

The temperatures given in this book are in Fahrenheit, the 
scale we use in our daily life. However, many consider the 
Centigrade reading as more scientific as it is used in advanced 
research work. To change a temperature reading from 
Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply Centigrade temperature 
by 1.8 and add 32°, which will give the equivalent tempera- 
ture in Fahrenheit. Thus a temperature of 100° Centigrade 
is equivalent to 212° Fahrenheit. 



Recipe, No. 27. Baked Potatoes 

Select potatoes of uniform size. Wash and scrub them well. 
Bake in a clean, hot oven from thirty to forty-five min- 
utes, or until soft. Break the skins to let the steam in- 
side escape. Serve at once, uncovered. Should there be 
any potatoes left over, peel them that they may be in 
better condition to warm for another meal. Baking may 
be hastened by washing the potatoes in hot water. 

Sweet potatoes. Sweet potatoes may be baked by follow- 
ing directions for white potatoes. 



COOKING 111 

Recipe, No. 28. Parmesan Potatoes 

Take as many potatoes as desired, scrub them well and be 
careful that they have no dark spots. Bake them in a hot 
oven, but not so hot that they will become hard or burn. 
Whendonecutinhalves, scoop out the potato into a hot bowl. 
Mash it well, adding butter, salt, pepper and grated cheese 
to taste. Refill the skins and heat again before serving. 



LESSON VIII 
WATER 

While water cannot in the usual sense be called a food it 
fills one of the most important offices in the nutrition of the 
body, and ranks next to oxygen as a supporter of life. We may 
go without food for several days, but only a short time with- 
out water. Water constitutes about three fourths of the 
whole body. It forms a large part of the muscular tissue, and 
is found even in the bones. It abounds in the blood and 
secretions, giving them the necessary fluidity, thus enabling 
them to dissolve the important materials they contain, carry 
them over the body, and clean away the used-up material. 

Water is the great regulator of animal heat, for by its 
evaporation in perspiration it prevents or reduces any exces- 
sive temperature of the body. 

We are constantly losing a large quantity of water through 
the lungs, skin, and kidneys. This loss must be supplied, 
or life cannot go on. A large amount of water must be taken 
as a beverage, and care must be taken to have it free from any 
harmful substance. Although it is found in all kinds of solid 
food, yet there are many foods to which it must be added in 
cooking. 

When there is any question about its purity, boil the water 
before using it. Pour it back and forth in pitchers that it 
may become aerated, and cool before using. Water is the 
cheapest of the five food stuffs. 

As a beverage, and for all culinary purposes, water should 
be freshly drawn, and if from a faucet or pipe, it should run 
long enough to empty the pipe before drawing it for use. 
When it is desirable to have it very cold, draw it into bottles, 
cork it tightly and lay it on ice. This is better for most people 

112 



WATER 113 

than to put ice into the water. Water from the hot water 
boiler should never be used for cooking. When boiling water 
is specified with food, it should be water that is actually in a 
state of ebullition and the water should be used at the first 
boil. Keep a small stew-pan with a lip purposely for cook- 
ing water as it can be cleaned more easily than anything 
with a long spout, like the ordinary tea-kettle, which is really 
only suitable for water to be used in cleaning. The flavor 
of all beverages, cereals, vegetables, etc., will be greatly im- 
proved by observing this simple rule. 



BOILING, OR COOKING IN WATER 

Cooking in a boiling liquid is the most common form of 
cooking, and water is the liquid usually employed. 

Nearly every kind of food needs the action of water, or some 
other liquid, combined with heat, to cook it in the best man- 
ner. 

Some seeds and grains, when fully grown, lose by the ripen- 
ing process nearly all the water that was in them, and become 
very hard. They need to absorb a large amount of water in 
cooking to replace that which they have lost. 

Other foods contain so much water that simply heating 
them cooks them sufficiently, while still others are improved 
by having the water they contain taken away. 

Some foods have flavors which are affected by the tempera- 
ture of the water and the length of time they remain in it. 

To understand the different effects of cold water and boiling 
water upon food, and also the time required for cooking in 
water, we need first to learn about boiling water. When we 
cook in boiling water, we really cook the water first ; that is, 
we heat or boil it. 

Put a cup of cold water in a saucepan over the fire, and see 
what happens. When it becomes so hot that we cannot bear 
the fingers in it take the temperature. This is scalding hot 
water. Soon tiny bubbles form on the edges and bottom of 
the pan. This is the air in the water which expands by the 
heat. These air bubbles disappear as they reach the colder 
water near the top, and the cold water being heavier goes to 



114 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the bottom. This makes a sHght motion in the water which 
is called simmering, and which is often mistaken for boiling. 
Water simmers at about 180° Fah. 

After a while all the w^ater is very hot, that nearer the 
bottom is changed into steam, large bubbles of steam rise 
rapidly and soon break above the surface, making quite a 
commotion or bubbling all over the top, and we say "the 
water boils/' 

We take the temperature, and find it boils at 212° Fah. 
As the bubbles break the steam escapes, and when it comes 
in contact with the cold air above and outside the kettle it is 
changed, or condensed, into a fine mist. W^e call this mist 
steam, but it is water vapor ; the real steam is invisible. 

Thus we learn that boiling is the changing of water or liquid 
into steam by the action of heat sufficient to cause commotion 
or bubbling on the surface. 

Any solid must first be melted into a liquid before it can 
boil. We do not really boil our potatoes ; we cook them in 
boiling water. 

After boiling the water some time we take the temperature 
again, and find the water is no hotter than 212° Fah. We 
increase the fire to make the water boil faster, and the force 
of the steam lifts the cover, and the water runs over and 
spatters the stove ; but we find the water is no hotter. The 
excess of heat escapes in the steam, and in ordinary kettles it 
is impossible to retain the whole of it. 

Cover the kettle, and some of the steam condenses into 
water on the inside of the cover, drops back again into the 
kettle, and gives up its heat. So although we do not gain any 
greater degree of heat by boiling rapidly, yet by keeping the 
cover on more of the heat is kept inside. The steam, as it 
changes from a vapor to a liquid, gives back the heat that 
it has, and by keeping in the steam we can economize 
heat. The water does not evaporate so quickly when 
covered. 

We cool a portion of the boiling water, and find it tastes 
flat. This is because the gases, or air, which gave it a fresh 
taste have escaped. 

If we let the water all boil away, or be changed into steam, 



WATER 115 

we find only a rim or deposit of brown scum on the edge of the 
pan. 

We learn by this experiment in cooking or boiling water — 

That it boils at 212° Fah., or when it bubbles all over the 
top; 

That when once it boils all over it becomes no hotter, and 
fuel and heat are wasted when it boils at a galloping rate ; 

That the kettle should never be so full that the water, as it 
expands in heating, will boil over ; 

That it loses its freshness by long boiling, and should be 
used at once ; 

That it boils away faster if uncovered ; 

That in time it will all evaporate and pass off as steam, and 
more must be added as needed ; 

And, lastly, that the water leaves a deposit on the kettle, 
which, if not removed, will in time affect the taste of the water. 

If water boils over, it clings to the outside and browns the 
kettle. 

When cooking in boiling water put fresh cold water into the 
stewpan and bring it to the boiling point quickly. Put in the 
food to be cooked ; this will check the boiling a few minutes, 
but watch and when boiling begins reduce the heat till just 
sufficient to produce bubbling, — except for such foods as 
require rapid boiling like rice and macaroni. If food is put 
into a cold kettle and boiling water poured over it from a tea- 
kettle, the kettle as well as the food takes away the heat from 
the water and boiling is delayed ; and if the water has stood 
some time in the tea kettle it is not fresh. 

Reckon the time from the moment boiling begins, not from 
the time you put the food into the kettle. 

Water boils at a higher temperature when there is sugar or 
salt or anything in it to increase its density. 

Water boils at a lower temperature when the pressure of the 
air upon the water is diminished. Before a rain the pressure 
of the air is lessened, because the air when filled with vapor 
is lighter. Things burn on more quickly at such a time 
because the water evaporates more rapidly. The pressure of 
the air is less the higher we ascend above the level of the sea, 
and at an elevation of 14,150 feet water boils at 188.6°. 



116 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Cooking in boiling water requires a much longer time, there- 
fore, in mountainous regions, for the water boils so quickly 
that it has less heat than at lower altitudes, where it is 
subject to greater pressure. 

Recipe, No. 29. Lemonade with Boiling Water 

1 pt. water. 3 lemons. 

1 c. sugar. 1 qt. cold water. 

Wash and scrub the lemons ; shave off thin portions of the 
yellow peel from one lemon ; put it and the sugar into the cold 
water and boil gently ten minutes. 

Cut the lemons in halves ; lay aside six slices ; remove the 
seeds ; squeeze out the juice ; pour the boiling syrup into the 
juice and when cold strain out the peel ; add cold water and 
in serving put a lemon slice and one tablespoon of chipped ice 
into each glass. 

Cooking the sugar and peel in the water improves the flavor. 

Recipe, No. 30. Tea 

Boiling water draws out some flavors which are desirable, 
if they are simply drawn out and not boiled. We pour boiling 
water on tea to draw out the flavor. If the tea is steeped, 
the infusion is agreeable ; but if boiled, other substances — 
tannin, etc. — are drawn out, which are not only unpalatable 
but unwholesome. Infuse means " to pour into ; '' stee'p 
means ^^ to soak.'' Infuse, or steep, tea ; never boil it. Tea 
should be steeped in an earthen teapot, never in tin. The 
water should be freshly boiled. 

To make tea, first scald the teapot. Allow one teaspoon of 
tea for one cup of water. Put the tea into the hot teapot ; 
pour in the boiling water ; cover, and let it steep five minutes. 
At the table cover the teapot with a hood. 

Recipe, No. 31. Coffee 

2 tbsp. coffee to 1 c. boiling water. 

Reduce the proportion of coffee, when several cups are re- 
quired. Mix the coffee with one clean egg shell or one inch of 



WATER 117 

fish skin. Put it in the pot, add the boiling water, and boil 
only five minutes. Set it where it will keep hot but not boil. 
Add one half cup of cold water. Pour out a little and pour it 
back, to clean the ground from the spout. 

Recipe, No. 32. Cocoa Shells 
i c. shells, 1 pt. freshly boiling water, and 1 pt. of milk. 

Boil the shells and water ten minutes, longer will not harm, 
and just before serving add the milk and serve as soon as the 
milk is hot. 

Recipe, No. 33. Chocolate and Cocoa 

1 c. milk scalded. 1 oz. or a square of chocolate. 

1 c. hot water. 1 tbsp. sugar. 

Cut the chocolate into small pieces and put it with the sugar 
and two tablespoons of the water into a saucepan. Stir over the 
fire until smooth and glossy. Add the remainder of the water 
gradually, and then the milk. Serve at once. Use twice as 
much chocolate if a richer drink be desired. For cocoa use 
one tablespoon. 

Water Thickened by Gelatine 

Water is made solid by freezing in salt and water as in 
water-ices and sherbets. It is made stiff by the addition of 
gelatine, a substance obtained from cleaned bones, tendons, 
and hides of animals. 

Gelatine softens and swells in cold water and dissolves in 
boiling water, and when the mixture is cold, it forms a stiff 
jelly-like substance. Fruit juices and other flavors are added 
with the boiling water to make the jelly more palatable. 

Gelatine is also used to thicken milk, cream, and various 
food combinations. 

Recipe, No. 34. Orange Jelly 

i box gelatine. Juice 1 lemon. 

I c. cold water. 1 c. sugar. 

1 c. boiling water. 1 pt. orange juice. 



118 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Soak the gelatine in cold water until soft. Add the boiling 
water, the lemon juice, sugar, and orange juice. Stir till the 
sugar is dissolved, then strain through fine linen into moulds 
or shallow pans, which have been wet in cold water. If 
granulated gelatine is used take two and one half tablespoons 
for either recipe. 

Recipe, No. 35. Bananas and Lemon-Jelly 

I box gelatine. 1 c. sugar. 

1 c. cold water. J c. lemon juice. 

1 pt. boiling water. 1 square inch stick cinnamon. 

Soak the gelatine in the cold water. Shave the lemon rind, 
using none of the white. Steep it with the cinnamon in the 
boiling water ten minutes ; add the soaked gelatine, sugar, and 
lemon juice, and when dissolved, strain into shallow dishes. 
When cold, cut it into dice or break it up with a fork, put it in 
a glass dish in layers with sliced bananas. 

Serve it with medium cream. 



LESSON IX 

MILK 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Water Protein Fat ^^^t^s ^^^ 

Whole Milk ... 87 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7 

SMmMilk .... 90.5 3.4 .3 5.1 .7 

Butter 11.0 1.0 85.0 3.0 

Cream Cheese . . . 34.2 25.9 33.7 2.4 3.8 

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

Skim Milk Cheese Butter Skim Milk Cheese 

Whole Milk Skim Milk Cheese Whole Milk Butter 

Cheese Whole Milk Whole Milk Cheese Whole Milk 

Butter Butter Skim Milk Butter Skim Milk 

Milk is the first food for infants and contains all the food 
stuffs, which we can separate and study each by itself. We 
should not think of milk only as a beverage, even though it 
is drunk as such, much as water. Milk is a natural food and 
can be used without cooking, and in many combinations of 
cooked food. The food stuffs are not in the right proportion 
for adults, as the amount of carbohydrates is small, therefore 
bread or cereal should be eaten with milk. Milk contains 
water, sugar, salts, fat, and protein in the form of albumin 
and casein. After it stands a while, the fat separates and 
rises as cream. This is churned ; the particles of fat adhere 
and separate from the water and thus butter is formed. The 
sugar and salts are dissolved in the water of the milk. The 
casein is dissolved in fresh milk, but when the milk becomes 
old, and sours, it separates from the watery part and forms 
a thick mass which we call curd. This curd is made into 

119 



120 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cheese. The watery part left after removing the curd is called 
whey. 

As milk contains all these substances it is thicker than 
water, and when we boil it in an open pan it adheres to the 
pan and burns quickly. The bubbles of water in the milk, as 
they change into steam, rise rapidly, the albumin hardens 
and forms a skin-like coating ; as this skin is thick and tena- 
cious, owing to the other substances in the milk, these 
bubbles do not break quickly at the surface as clear water 
bubbles do, but stretch and climb one upon another till they 
run over the edge of the pan. 

This skin-coating is not attractive and many persons skim 
it off, but as it is protein and a valuable part of the milk, it 
should be saved by stirring the milk while it is heating, then 
removing the pan when the bubbles appear on the edge, and 
stirring the milk until cool. This is scalded milk. Milk that 
is simply to be taken as hot or warm, may be heated in this 
way, — if you give it constant attention, — a moment's 
neglect may cause it to boil over or burn on. 

To avoid the danger of burning on, or when the milk needs 
longer heating, or at a lower temperature, use a double boiler. 
When the whole surface is covered with air bubbles, — not 
steam bubbles, — the milk is hot enough though not actually 
boiling. The temperature of boiling milk is slightly higher 
than that of boiling water, and it will not boil over boiling 
water. Milk which is really boiled has a different flavor from 
that of scalded milk. 

The albumin coagulates by heat; the casein coagulates 
quickly by the addition of an acid, such as lemon juice, vin- 
egar, or the acid from the stomach of a calf, which is used in 
the form of rennet. Casein in milk coagulates naturally in 
the human stomach. The casein coagulates slowly by long- 
keeping owing to the change of the sugar into lactic acid. 

Recipe, No. 36. Lemon Whey 

Scald one cup milk in a double boiler ; add tablespoon lemon 
juice ; cook it until the curd forms, but do not stir it. When 
the whey has separated, strain out the curd ; add one table- 



MILK 121 

spoon of sugar, or more If desired, and serve it hot or cold. 
This dish is especially refreshing for invalids. 

Recipe, No. 37. Thickened Milk, Rennet Custard, 

OR Slip 

Put one tablespoon sugar, one eighth teaspoon salt, one tea- 
spoon vanilla, and one rennet tablet into one pint of pure, fresh 
milk, which has not been scalded, and warm it to blood heat, — 
never more than 100° Fah. Dissolve the rennet, if dry, in one 
tablespoon of cold water and stir this very thoroughly into 
the milk. Pour the milk at once, — before the thickening pro- 
cess begins, — into small cups suitable for serving ; stand 
them on a tray so that they may be lifted together without 
jarring the milk. Keep them in a warm but not hot place, 
about an hour or until the milk is firm ; then check the pro- 
cess by putting the tray into the refrigerator. 

Vary the flavoring by using coffee, melted chocolate, orange 
juice, spice, or beef extract. Put all coloring or flavoring 
into the milk before adding the rennet solution. 

Serve simply, with powdered sugar and plain or whipped 
cream ; or with mildly acid jellies, or fresh fruit juices. If 
served in a large dish the custard often becomes watery, 
when it is once broken up in serving, and any portion left 
over is not attractive. Individual dishes are preferable. 

Rennet is sold in liquid form, in powders and tablets. It 
is made from a digestive substance called rennin which is 
found in the stomach of calves. Rennin causes the casein, 
or protein of milk, to thicken, thus starting the process of 
digestion of milk, making dishes containing it easier of diges- 
tion. It is always safer to follow the directions on the 
package of whatever form of rennet you are using. 

Remember the important points : pure, sweet, uncooked 
milk, warmed, not made hot, and not disturbed after it is set. 

With a pint pan of sweet milk and also of sour milk, and one 
cup of thick cream used as directed in the recipes, each food stuff 
may be studied in combination and by itself. Skim part of 
the cream from a pan of milk and use it to moisten the sour 
milk cheese; use the skim milk to illustrate scalding and 



122 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cooking milk; make rennet custard with the unskimmed 
milk ; whip the cream and use part of it to serve with the 
Slip, and continue whipping the remainder until butter is 
formed. Scald and flavor the whey from the sour milk. 

Questions on Lessons VII, VIII, and IX 

What kinds of food are usually Why can we not live on milk 

cooked over boiling water ? alone ? 

What is Simmering ? What is a double boiler ? 

Why does milk boil over the How does the heat reach the 

pan more quickly than water ? food in a double boiler ? 
What is the safest way to heat 

milk? 



LESSON X 

MILK PRODUCTS 

Cream is now separated from the milk in creameries and 
offered for sale as heavy cream, medium cream, and thin or 
milkman's cream. For making butter heavy cream is used 
and sour cream makes the best flavored butter. For whipped 
cream use medium cream or dilute heavy cream with milk to 
prevent the butter separating. 

Recipe, No. 38. To Whip Cream 

Chill the cream, put it into a large bowl, and stand the 
bowl in the sink, — in hot weather put the bowl in ice water. 
Beat with a wire whisk until it is thick, or until it will hold 
its shape when dropped from a spoon. 

Recipe, No. 39. To Make Butter 

Butter may be made on a small scale in the classroom. Put 
a pint of heavy cream into a quart glass jar, adjust the cover 
and shake the jar until the particles of fat separate from the 
water and form tiny yellow flakes, — or it may be done by 
whipping thick cream in a bowl with a beater. 

Skim out the yellow flakes with a spoon and press out the 
butter-milk. Make the butter into a compact mass and wash 
it in cold water. Change the water until it is clear. Dry the 
butter in a clean cloth ; turn it into a bowl ; stir in one fourth 
teaspoon of salt ; pat it into a smooth cake and set away to 
chill ; or cut in inch cubes and put into ice water. 

123 



124 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 40. To Make Butter Balls 

Stand small butter moulds or paddles in boiling water for 
three minutes to sterilize them; then leave them in cold 
water until they are very cold. This will prevent the butter 
from sticking. Pack the butter into the mould, smooth off 
and turn out, — or roll an inch cube of butter between the 
two chilled paddles until you have a grooved oval or round 
shape. 

Sour Milk. Milk becomes bitter and strong by long-keep- 
ing, even in the refrigerator. The custom of keeping an 
uncovered pitcher, or sour milk ^' catch-all," on the kitchen 
shelf for the daily left-overs should not be allowed. Small 
left-overs of sweet milk, heated slightly, just a few bubbles 
on the edge of the pan, taken slowly when tired, before eating 
a full meal, or before retiring is not only a healthful practice 
but will dispose of much milk that otherwise would be wasted. 

When sour milk is desired for griddle cakes, mufhns, gin- 
gerbread and the like, put the milk in a covered dish ; keep in 
a warm place, and let it sour quickly, using it as soon as 
possible. Do not go on adding indefinitely new milk to the 
old. 

Skim Milk. Skim milk costs about half as much as whole 
milk and is a valuable food because although the fat has been 
removed the proportions of protein and carbohydrates are 
larger than in whole milk. It may be used for many purposes 
in cooking ; also for diluting heavy cream. 



Recipe, No. 41. Sour Milk Cheese 

(Curds, Bonny Clabber, Dutch or Cottage Cheese) 

This is an economical and wholesome way of using large 
portions of surplus milk which have soured and thickened 
quickly. The usual method is by warming the milk slowly 
at moderate heat until the curd separates from the water. 
This takes some time and for the class lesson there is a quicker 
and more convenient way. Lay a square of cheese cloth 



MILK PRODUCTS 125 

over a large pan ; measure the milk and put it into a pan large 
enough to contain an equal amount of water. Have the 
water boiling in a saucepan, pour nearly all of it into the milk ; 
stir quickly and test it with a clean finger, and the instant 
the liquid is blood-warm all through and tiny flakes of curd 
appear add no more water. 

Stir well ; if the water still looks milky, add more hot water 
or much of the curd will be left in the water ; if the curd is 
made too hot it will be hard and crumbly. Draw the corners 
of the strainer cloth together and let the whey drain out. 
Then tie them; hang the cloth over the short-armed rack 
which should be near the sink, and let it drip without pressure 
into the pan below. When dripping has ceased and there is 
a firm ball of curd in the cloth, turn out into a bowl. If 
stringy or so hard that it is a mass of crumbs, press it through 
a strainer with a wooden masher. Season with salt and stir 
in sufiicient cream or melted butter to moisten it so you may 
pack it smoothly into small cups ; — or shape it into small 
balls. Vary the flavor by stirring in minced parsley, cress, or 
pimientoes. 

Cheese is a highly concentrated protein food and should 
be combined with milk, rice, bread or other starchy foods. 
It is a substitute for meat and costs much less. A dish of 
macaroni with milk and cheese is too rich to be served with 
hearty meat, but combines well in a made over dish of fish 
or meat, or as the chief dish at luncheon. 



LESSON XI 

EXPERIMENT WITH STARCH 

If thin slices of raw potato are soaked in cold water, after a 
while a sediment is found in the pan. This is starch, which 
has dropped out of the cells which were cut by slicing. This 
sediment may be purified and dried, and then it will be like 
the pure starch of commerce. 

Pure starch is a fine white powder and is found enclosed in 
cells in the various grains, seeds, and vegetables. The starch 
commonly used in cooking is made from potatoes and corn. 

Wet a teaspoon of cornstarch with a little cold water. 
It appears to mix with the water, but after standing a short 
time the starch is found at the bottom of the bowl, and the 
water is clear again, showing that it has not united with the 
starch ; but by stirring this wet starch until a smooth paste 
is formed, and pouring it quickly into boiling water, we find 
that the membranes of the cell walls soften and burst ; the 
starch grains swell and absorb the water ; and the fine powder 
inside unites with the boiling water. 

We learn from this experiment that cold water does not 
affect starch; and that boiling water is absorbed by the 
starch grains, causing them to swell and form a thick pasty 
mass, which when cold is something like jelly. We call this 
change in the starch, hydrating or gelatinizing the starch. 
Starch is from the German word, starke, meaning " stiff.'' 

This experiment teaches us the first important principle 
of mixing dry and liquid ingredients and for boiling starchy 
foods : Any starchy food in the form of a powder, like 
flour or cornstarch, when it is to be used as a thickening, 
should first be wet with a little cold liquid to form a 
smooth paste. Then add more cold water until it is thin 

126 



EXPERIMENT WITH STARCH 127 

enough to pour. Stir it quickly into rapidly boiling water, 
and the grains will burst uniformly. 

If boiling water be poured upon fine dry starch, the grains 
are so compact it will not reach all of them. Some will burst 
more quickly than others, some will not burst at all, and the 
mass will be lumpy. 

But all other starchy foods, like rice and other whole 
grains, vegetables, tapioca, etc., should be put directly into 
boiling water. 

Starch in its uncooked, insoluble state is not easily digested. 
All starchy foods should be moistened with a sufficient amount 
of liquid, and subjected to a great degree of heat, that all the 
grains may swell and burst. 

To Wash Rice. Use a colander or coarse strainer, that the 
sediment may go out with the water. If washed in a bowl 
and the water merely turned off, the sediment remains with 
the rice. Set the strainer into a pan of cold water and rub 
the rice, still in the strainer, with the fingers ; change the water 
three times or until clear ; then the rice is clean. 



Recipe, No. 42. Boiled Rice 

1 qt. or more of water. ^ tsp. salt. 

I c. rice. 

Put the water into a large stewpan and set it where it will 
boil rapidly. Wash the rice. Turn the rice into the water 
slowly that it may fairly dance in the water ; stir with a fork 
at first, to keep the rice from sticking; remove the scum. 
Cook steadily, uncovered, fifteen or twenty minutes according 
to the age of the rice ; add more boiling water if needed ; be 
careful not to let it boil all out. Test the grains often after 
fifteen minutes and the moment they may be mashed between 
the thumb and finger, or are soft to the taste, turn them at 
once into a colander to drain. Save the water. If cooked too 
long and the starch has thickened the w^ater and the grains 
stick together, pour boiling water through them to make each 
grain distinct. 

Set the colander in a pan ; keep it hot in the hot-closet or on 



128 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the back of the stove ; stir it with a fork before serving to let 
the steam escape. 

Serve it in place of potato, — not with it, — as an accom- 
paniment to lamb, veal, or chicken. If served without meat 
or gravy, season with butter. Some of the protein and min- 
eral matter, of which rice has but a small amount, escape into 
the boiling water, especially when the rice is boiled too long. 

Recipe, No. 43. Lemon Sauce 

2 c. hot water. Grated rind and juice 

1 c. sugar. of 1 lemon. 

2 tsp. cornstarch. 1 tbsp. butter. 

Mix the sugar and cornstarch thoroughly ; add the boiling 
water. Cook eight or ten minutes, stirring often, add the 
lemon rind and juice, and the butter. Stir until the butter 
is melted and serve at once. If the water boils away and the 
sauce becomes too thick, add more hot water till of the right 
consistency. By mixing the cornstarch with the sugar, the 
boiling water may be poured directly upon it without making 
it lumpy. Serve on boiled rice. 

Recipe, No. 44. Snow Balls 

Wring small squares of thin cloth out of hot water, lay them 
one at a time over a half -pint bowl. Spread with cooked rice, 
lay half of a canned peach in the center, fill the cavity with 
rice, draw the cloth around the peach till it is covered with the 
rice, then tie tightly, and steam them ten minutes. Remove 
the cloth, turn the balls out and serve with the peach syrup 
heated and flavored with butter. 



LESSON XII 
RICE 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

12.3 8.0 .3 79.0 .4 

Rice is the seed of an annual cereal grass, cultivated on 
irrigated or inundated land in warm climates. It is the chief 
food of people in eastern Asia. A large part of our supply 
comes from the Gulf states, South Carolina formerly taking 
the lead in its production, but Louisiana and Texas are now 
the greatest producers. 

South Carolina rice is long and slender and of superior 
quality. Japan rice is short and oval. 

The husk and bran are removed and the grains are polished, 
thereby losing much nutritious material. Unpolished rice 
is brownish in color, less attractive than the polished, but 
the flavor is fine and it is considered the more nutritious. 

Rice is rich in starch, the grains are small with but little 
cellulose and are digested easily, and the rice is nearly all 
assimilated. But it absorbs so much water in cooking, that 
a large portion must be eaten to get a large amount of nutri- 
ment. 

As it has but a little protein, rice should not be eaten alone ; 
but combined with meat, fish or cheese it is suitable for a 
luncheon or dinner, and with eggs, milk and sugar, for des- 
serts or supper dishes. 

It has no distinctive flavor and needs onion, tomato, 
peppers or some of the many fruits to make it more palatable. 
It combines well with all varieties. Rice lacks fat and we 
naturally supply it in the butter or cream we eat with it ; this 

129 



130 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

makes it valuable for a summer diet, and at that time we may 
well use it in place of the richer cereals for breakfast. 

Much of the protein and mineral matter is lost if the water 
in which it is cooked be thrown away ; therefore steaming is 
the most economical method. But when boiled the water 
may be utilized in mixing bread and as a thickening for soups 
and sauces, or as a gruel. 

Rice keeps for a long time, takes but little room, is clean, 
easily cooked, and a convenient substitute for potato. 

Rice should be cooked thoroughly, but not overcooked, for 
the pasty mass of overcooked rice is not easily masticated. 

The proportion of water will vary, older rice taking more 
than the fresh in steaming. One cup of rice will usually 
absorb two and one half cups of water, but when milk or 
stock are used three cups will be required. 

The best rice is of a yellowish shade with but little starch- 
dust adhering. 

Broken rice may cost less but the cooked product is not so 
attractive as that from the whole grains. 

This lesson illustrates the effect of slow cooking and neces- 
sity for combining foods to improve their flavor. Also how 
to study foods and classify what you learn about them. 

Recipe, No. 45. Cream Rice Pudding 

6 tbsp. rice. 1 qt. milk. 

6 tbsp. sugar. J tsp. salt. 

Pick over and wash the rice. Put it in a shallow baking- 
dish. Dissolve the sugar and salt in the milk, add the nut- 
meg, and pour it over the rice. Bake slowly the first half 
hour, stirring often, then increase the heat and cook until the 
rice is tender and slightly browned. Serve hot with butter. 
Raisins or citron, sliced fine, may be added, if preferred. 

ARROWROOT, SAGO, AND TAPIOCA 

These prepared starchy foods come to us from tropical 
countries, and are used in ways similar to those of corn- 
starch which is made from native corn. 



ARROWROOT, SAGO, AND TAPIOCA 131 

Arrowroot is made from the rootstalk of a West Indian 
plant ; that from Bermuda is made and shipped with special 
care^ has a delicate flavor, and is used largely in dishes for 
invalids. 

Sago is derived from the pith of the sago palm. After 
the trees are felled and split the starch is washed out and 
allowed to settle ; then dried and granulated and we buy it 
as pearl sago. The tiny pearl-like pellets retain their shape 
in cooking and are attractive in the egg and milk mixtures 
in which they are commonly used. 

Tapioca is the best known of these prepared starchy foods. 
It is made from the tubers of the South American cassava 
plant. These are grated and the poisonous juice is washed 
away, the starch is separated from the cellulose, then is 
collected and dried on hot metal plates. In drying most 
of the starch grains are ruptured.^ Tapioca is sold as flake 
and pearl tapioca. 

It is not necessary to soak tapioca in cold water before 
cooking. If the flake tapioca is large and uneven pound 
it until fine and uniform. Tapioca is nearly pure starch, 
which is not soluble in cold water; the starch grains are 
not enclosed in a tough membrane which needs long soak- 
ing to soften it before the starch can be released, neither 
are the grains of starch finely divided like those in flour and 
cornstarch and they do not need cold water to separate them. 

Being destitute of protein and fat, tapioca like all purely 
starchy foods should be combined with butter or cream, 
milk, eggs, or meat juices. 

The flavor is somewhat insipid and fruit juices are used 
to make tapioca more palatable. Eaten with sugar and 
cream such combinations afford delicious summer desserts. 

Sago and tapioca are used to thicken soups : they give a 
consistency without destroying the transparency. 

Recipe, No. 46. Apple Tapioca Pudding 

Pick over and wash three fourths cup of pearl tapioca; 
put it into top of double boiler ; add one teaspoon salt and 

^ See Food and Dietetics, Hutchinson, page 236. 



132 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

one quart boiling water. Cook five minutes directly over 
the heat, stirring constantly to prevent sticking. Then 
put it over boiling water and cook about one hour or until 
transparent, stirring often. 

Wipe, core, and pare seven tart apples, medium size, and 
put them in a round enamel pudding dish. Fill the cores 
with sugar, add one tablespoon lemon juice and a little 
grated rind. Pour the hot tapioca over the apples and 
bake till the apples are soft. Serve hot or cold with sugar 
and medium cream, not whipped. 

Questions on Lessons X, XI, and XII 

What is cream ? we do meat ? 

What is casein ? How is butter formed ? 

Why do we add water to boil How do rice and milk combine 
rice ? to form a good ration of food 

Why can we not bake rice as stuff? 



LESSON XIII 
EXPERIMENT WITH ALBUMIN OF EGGS 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF EGGS 

Water Protein Fat Ash 

65.5 13.1 9.3 0.9 

Albumin is a substance found in many foods in both solid 
and liquid forms. 

The white of eggs is nearly pure albumin. The yolks con- 
tain a smaller portion of it. The albumin in the white of an 
egg is in a clear, liquid form ; but if we put an egg into boiling 
water, the white soon becomes opaque, thick, and creamy, 
then tough, and finally the white is quite hard and brittle, and 
the yolk dry and mealy, or easily crumbled. The two kinds 
of albumin in the egg coagulate at 122° and 166° Fah. 

Eggs are also cooked in hot milk. When we break an egg, 
we find the white is soft and without form, and the yolk seems 
round and firmer than the white ; but if we break the film or 
membrane on the outside of the yolk we find that it, too, is 
soft and liquid. By beating, we can mix the yolk and white, 
and be unable to distinguish them. Sometimes we want to use 
the two parts separately, and it is an art to break and divide 
an egg J and not mix the yolk with the white. When eggs are 
cooked in milk, the albumin in the egg thickens, and if cooked 
slightly, and stirred constantly, forms a smooth, soft, creamy 
mass. If cooked longer, and without stirring, it becomes 
thick and solid ; but if cooked too long the casein and albumin 
become hard, and separate from the watery part, or the mass 
curdles. 

Eggs cooked in milk, and seasoned with salt, pepper, and 
butter, are called poached eggs. When they are sweetened 
call the mixture a custard. 

133 



134 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

When eggs are eaten raw, or cooked in any way in which 
the result is to be a smooth, soft mass, the thick white sub- 
stance uniting the yolk and white should be removed before 
cooking, unless the cooked mixture is to be strained, as in soft 
custard. This substance hardens into a lump, and it is 
unpleasant to find it in what would otherwise be a smooth 
mass. In eggs cooked in the shell, or cooked hard as in cake, 
it is not perceptible. 

Recipe, No. 47. Dropped or Poached Eggs on Toast 

Toast a slice of bread for each egg and trim neatly. Have 
a clean shallow pan nearly full of salted, boiling water. 
Remove all the scum and let the water simmer. Break 
each egg carefully into a saucer, and slip it gently into the 
simmering water. Dip the water over them with a spoon, 
and when a film has formed over the yolk and the white 
is firm, take each egg up with a skimmer, drain, trim off 
any rough edges, and place it on the toast. Sprinkle salt 
and pepper on each egg. 

Recipe, No. 48. Soft-cooked Eggs 

Put the eggs into a stewpan, half full of boiling water, 
and cover ; let them stand from six to ten minutes where the 
water will keep hot (180°), but not boiling. The white 
should be soft and jellylike, and the yolk soft but not liquid. 
If cooked in boiling water, cook from three to five minutes. 

Recipe, No. 49. Hard-cooked Eggs 

Cook them twenty minutes, in water just bubbling. The 
yolk of an egg cooked twenty minutes is dry, mealy, and easily 
digested ; but cooked ten minutes in rapidly boiling water, 
it is tough and takes longer to digest. 

Recipe, No. 50. Soft Custard 

1 c. milk scalded. 1 tbsp. sugar. 

1 egg. I tsp. flavoring. 

Beat the egg to a froth ; stir in the sugar and salt ; add the 
hot milk and mix well. Pour back into double boiler and 



EXPERIMENT WITH ALBUMIN OF EGGS 135 

stir constantly until the foam disappears, the custard coats 
the spoon, and it feels thick and smooth like cream. Strain 
through a gravy strainer ; cool quickly ; add flavoring, and 
serve as a sauce with rice. 

Recipe, No. 51. Soft Custard (Yolks Only) 

1 pt. milk. } tsp. salt. 

Yolks of 3 eggs. | tsp. vanilla. 

6 tbsp. sugar. 

Scald the milk. Beat the yolks ; add the sugar and salt, 
and beat well. Pour the hot milk slowly into the eggs, and 
when well mixed pour all back into the double boiler, and 
stir constantly till smooth and thick like cream. Strain, 
and when cool add the flavoring. Do not stir the egg into 
the hot milk, as there is danger of curdling, and a part of 
the egg will be left in the bowl. Scalding the milk hastens 
the process, so that less stirring is required. When nearly 
thick enough, the foam on the top disappears, and the cus- 
tard coats the spoon; but the surest test is the sensation 
that the custard is thicker as the spoon goes through the 
mass. 

Recipe, No. 52. Cup Custard 

Scald one pint of milk. Beat yolks of two eggs until 
smooth ; add four tablespoons of sugar, one quarter teaspoon 
of salt, and then the whites of the eggs beaten until 
foamy, but not dry. Pour on the hot milk, mix well, and 
turn into small custard cups. Place the cups in a pan of 
hot water and bake in a moderate oven until the custard 
puffs up and is firm, or a knife inserted will come out clean. 
While it is not necessary to beat eggs much for a custard, 
as our purpose is to have a smooth texture merely, not one 
light and porous, as in cake, it is well to beat yolks and whites 
separately, as the frothy surface from the beaten whites 
helps the custard to brown better, and gives a more deli- 
cious crust. Cup custards should be made from fresh un- 
skimmed milk. Be careful not to over-bake them or they 
will be like whey. 



LESSON XIV 

STEAMING, AND OTHER FORMS OF 
COOKING IN BOILING WATER 

Some starchy foods need rapid cooking in boiling water, 
directly over the fire. The danger of burning them is avoided 
by using plenty of water. 

Sometimes it is desirable to cook more slowly than we 
can in boiling water, and some foods require only a limited 
amount of water ; or it may be they are sticky and glutinous, 
and it would be inconvenient to be constantly stirring them 
to prevent burning. It is then better to cook either over 
boiling water or by steam. 

This method is sometimes called Dry Steaming. Puddings, 
brown bread, mushes, custards, and other soft, sticky, 
glutinous mixtures are often cooked in a covered pail or 
mould, which is placed in a kettle of boiling water. There 
should be a trivet or muffin-ring under the pail to keep it 
from the bottom of the kettle and allow the water to be 
under as well as around it. The kettle should be covered 
closely to keep in the steam, and the water kept boiling stead- 
ily the required time. The heat is conveyed from the boiling 
water through the boiler to the food. The temperature 
in the inner pail is less than that of boiling water, but it is 
hot enough to cook the mixture. It takes a longer time 
than some other ways of cooking, but if the fire be prepared 
rightly, and the supply of water sufficient, it needs less atten- 
tion. It is an economical and satisfactory method, answer- 
ing well the first great purpose in cooking, — that of develop- 
ing flavor with little loss of substance. 

A double boiler is a utensil made for cooking on this 
principle. It has two boilers; the upper one, holding 

136 



STEAMING, AND OTHER FORMS OF COOKING 137 

the food, fits tightly half way down into the lower one, 
which contains the boiling water. The steam is partially 
confined, and as it changes from the gaseous to the liquid 
form, or condenses on the inner boiler, it gives up its heat 
sufiiciently to cook the food. 

These modes of cooking are often called steaming, but 
they are only other forms of boiling ; the cooking by real 
steam is a very different process. Superheated steam is 
forced through pipes into a receptacle containing the food, 
and in this way a greater degree of heat is obtained. This 
is the method used in canning factories. 

Moist Steaming. In real steaming as it is commonly done, 
a steamer or covered pan with perforations in the bottom is 
placed over boiling water, the food placed in it, and kept 
entirely out of the water, but in direct contact with the 
steam, which, coming through the perforations, condenses, 
gives up its heat, and cooks the food. Some vegetables, 
fruits, meats, and other foods or mixtures which have suffi- 
cient moisture in themselves are cooked in this way. Watery 
vegetables are made drier; tough, dry meats are softened, 
and made tender ; and flour mixtures have a different flavor 
from that obtained by dry heat or cooking in water. This 
method is moist steaming, the steam conveying the heat 
directly to the food. Moist steaming is also a convenient 
way to re-heat cooked foods such as stale bread and cake, 
left overs of fish, meat, and vegetables. 

In this lesson we are to learn more about starch as it is 
found in grains like oatmeal ; also about a kind of protein 
contained in grains and called gluten, because when dry it 
is tough and sticky like glue. 

These grains are hard and dry. Many things which have 
dried in ripening, need a large amount of water to swell and 
soften them. If we were to cook oatmeal in the oven, 
without anything else, as we did the baked potatoes, it would 
be harder and drier than it is now. But the potatoes be- 
come softer by baking. 

If we wanted a thin gruel of oatmeal we should cook it in 
a large quantity of water until the starch and gluten were 
swollen and softened; but when we make oatmeal mush 



138 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

we want to have it more like solid food than pasty gruel. 
We cannot drain off the water as easily as we did from the 
potatoes, so we must be careful to use only so much water 
as is needed to swell and soften the starch and gluten. Oat- 
meal, for mush, requires four times its bulk of water; fine 
oatmeal, a little less. 

We use boiling water because oatmeal is not a fine 
powder like flour, and the grains will separate easily without 
being first wet in cold water, and because the boiling water 
bursts the starch grains quickly, and begins at once to cook 
them. If we put the meal into cold water, the starch will 
come out into the water, and make it gluey and pasty. 
This thickened, gluey water cannot soften the gluten quickly, 
so it takes a longer time to cook, and it always has a raw, 
pasty taste. We add salt because there is not enough in 
the grain, and then we must cook it until the gluten is softened 
thoroughly. Cook it rapidly at first, directly on the stove, 
about ten minutes, to burst all the starch grains. When 
the water is nearly absorbed, place the pan into, or over, 
another of boiling water. The steam will keep the water 
in the meal hot enough to soften the gluten, but not hot 
enough to boil and waste away and so make the mush too 
dry ; and this slow cooking will soften the gluten more thor- 
oughly than rapid boiling, and develop a better flavor. 

Recipe, No. 53. Oatmeal Mush, with Baked Apples 

I c. coarse oatmeal. 2 e. boiling water. 

J tsp. salt. 

Put the salt and water into the upper boiler. Place it on 
the stove and when boiling, add the oatmeal and boil rapidly 
ten minutes. Stir occasionally with a fork ; then place it 
over boiling water, and cook from forty minutes to one hour. 
Serve with baked or steamed apples, and cream and sugar. 

Fine hominy and granulated wheat are cooked in the 
same way, but they require only three times as much water 
as meal. 

Whole or cracked wheat requires five times as much 
water as meal, and should cook four or five hours. 



STEAMING, AND OTHER FORMS OF COOKING 139 

Steamed Apples. Wipe, core, and pare the apples. Place 
in a steamer and cook until soft. 



CEREALS 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 



Cebeals Water Protein 


Fat C)arbo- 
•*■ ^^ hydrates 


Ash 


Corn Meal 


. . . . 


12.5 


9.2 


1.9 


75.4 


1.0 


Oats (Breakfast food) 


7.7 


16.7 


7.3 


66.2 


2.1 


Rye Flour 




12.9 


6.8 


.9 


78.7 


.7 


Barley . 




10.9 


12.4 


1.8 


72.5 


2.4 


Rice . 




12.3 


8.0 


.3 


79.0 


.4 


Buckwheat 




13.6 


6.4 


1.2 


77.9 


.9 


Macaroni , 




10.3 


13.4 


.9 


78.7 


.7 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbo- . 
hydrates ^^ 


Buckwheat 


Oats 


Oats 




Rice 


Barley 


Rye Flour 


Macaroni 


Corn Meal 


Macaroni 


L Oats 




Corn Meal 


Barley 


Barley 


Rye Flour Corn Meal 


Rice 


Corn Meal 


Buckwheat 


Buckwheat Buckwheat 


Barley 


Rice 


[Macaroni 
(Rye Flour 


Corn Meal [Macaroni 


Macaroni 


Rye Flour 


Barley 


[Rye Flour 


Oats 


Buckwheat Rice 




Oats 


Rice 





Cereals are the edible seeds of several varieties of grasses ; 
" the gift-bearing grasses/' they have been called, because 
their seeds are the most valuable and widely distributed 
food for man. 

Wheat, corn, oats, rice, rye, barley, and millet are the 
best known, and grain is a name common to all. 

They contain all the food stuffs ; they have a large pro- 
portion of starch, and while in the grain they may be kept 
a long time. The amount of protein and mineral matter is 
small, but valuable in quality and economical, for cereals 
are inexpensive as compared with other foods containing 
protein. 

Many food products are made from cereals ; among them 
are: 

Flour J a finely ground product, principally from wheat, 
but corn, rye and rice are also made into flour. 



140 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Meal is coarsely ground from wheat, oats, corn, and rye; 
Graham flour is really wheat meal. 

Breakfast Foods are made from all the grains but chiefly 
from wheat, oats, corn, and rice. The outer skin is flrst 
removed and then the grain is used in several forms ; whole 
or broken, as in hulled corn or samp, coarse hominy, cracked 
wheat, whole oats or groats, rice, and pearl barley ; granu- 
lated or steel cut, as in oat meal, and various granulated 
wheat preparations, granulated corn meal, and fine hominy ; 
ground coarse by crushing, as in wind-mill ground corn 
meal, rye meal, and barley flakes; steam cooked; these are 
first cooked, then dried and rolled as rolled oats, or shredded 
and baked as in shredded wheat, or dried and flaked as in 
rice and corn flakes. The last two are served without further 
cooking as are also several puffed and flavored preparations, 
as puffed rice and wheat, malt food, and grape nuts. 

Cereals are invaluable food stuffs. 

They furnish heat to keep us warm, power or energy to 
make the heart and lungs work and for us to do many kinds 
of muscular and mental work. 

To Cook Cereals. Allow two cups boiling water to one 
cup steam cooked oats, one and one-half cups to steam cooked 
wheat, and from three to four cups to the fine granulated 
or meal-like cereals. Stir the cereal into the rapidly boil- 
ing water, in top of double boiler, and cook directly over 
the stove for five minutes, then over boiling water; three 
hours for corn meal and coarse oatmeal and coarse hominy ; 
one hour for fine hominy and granulated oats, and half an 
hour for all others. Allow one teaspoon salt for one quart 
water. 



LESSON XV 
TOAST 

We toast bread not merely to brown it, but to take out 
all the moisture possible, that it may be moistened more 
perfectly with the saliva and thus easily digested; then we 
brown it to give it a better flavor. If the slice be thick and 
carelessly exposed to a blazing fire, the outside is blackened 
and made into charcoal before the heat can reach the inside. 
The moisture is only heated, not evaporated, making the 
inside doughy or clammy; and butter, when spread upon 
the bread, cannot penetrate it, but floats on the surface in 
the form of oil, and the result is one of the most indigestible 
compounds. 

The correct way is to have the bread stale and cut into 
thin uniform slices, and to dry it thoroughly before brown- 
ing it. Such toast, even if moistened with water or milk, 
may be acted upon easily and thoroughly by the digestive 
fluids. 

Use only perfect slices of stale bread for toast. Broken 
pieces may be used for stuffing, puddings, and brewis. Or 
they may be dried and browned in the oven, then rolled and 
sifted and used to cover articles that are to be fried. The 
recipe for milk toast illustrates the use of corn starch as a 
thickening agent, and toast illustrates the effect of intense 
heat on starch. 



Recipe, No. 54. Toast 

Cut stale bread in slices one fourth inch thick. Put it 
on a toaster or fork. Move it gently over the fire till dry, 
then hold it nearer until golden brown. Serve dry. 

141 



142 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 55. Water Toast 

Have a shallow pan with one pint of boiling water and 
one half teaspoon of salt. Dip each slice of dry toast 
quickly in the water, then spread with butter and serve 
very hot. 

Recipe, No. 56. Milk Toast 



1 c. milk, scalded. 
I tbsp. cornstarch, or 2 
tbsp. flour. 



1 tbsp. butter. 
8 tsp. salt. 



Melt the butter in a granite saucepan, add the dry corn- 
starch, mix well, add one third of the milk, stir well as 
it boils and thickens, then add more milk, stir again, and 
when smooth add the remainder of the milk and the salt. 
Pour this between the slices of toast, and over the whole. 
If liked very soft, dip the slices first in hot salted water. 



Questions on Lessons XIII, XIV, and XV 



What is the proper way to 

prepare toast? 
What is a custard ? 
What food stuff do eggs best 

illustrate ? 
Why are eggs better if not 

boiled but cooked ? 
Why must we measure the 

water for cooking oatmeal ? 



What cereal contains the most 

protein ? 
What cereal would be best for 

breakfast in the summer? 

In the winter? 
Why do we toast bread ? 
What effect does toasting have 

upon the starch in bread? 



LESSON XVI 
FATS 

Fats include butter, cream, bacon, cheese, nuts, oil and 
fat meat. 

Fats stand at the head of heat-producing foods, and are 
necessary in winter and in cold climates, for they serve im- 
portant uses in the body. A small amount is necessary in 
digestion, and indispensable to perfect nutrition. 

Fat forms the principal material of certain tissues, which, 
by filling the spaces between the bones, muscles, and the 
different organs of the body, make it plump and round and 
give beauty to the form, oil the working parts of the body 
so that the joints and muscles move smoothly, and, being 
non-conductors of heat, keep the body warm and the internal 
temperature at the normal point, 98° F. An undue accumu- 
lation of fat is a disease, and disease just as surely results 
from a deficiency of fat. 

Fats are derived from animal and vegetable sources, and 
are classed as fats and oils. 

The oils are derived chiefly from the fruit of the olive 
tree and from cottonseeds. 

Oils are liquid at ordinary temperature. Animal fats 
are solid but become liquid by heating. Butter, which is 
made from cream, and pork fat, as lard, have a soft texture. 
Beef suet is slightly harder and mutton fat is the hardest of 
all. 

The fat of meat is a useful article of food, especially in 
winter. Every scrap of it, particularly of beef fat, should 
be used, and all that is not eaten with the meat should be 
clarified, or made pure and clear. 

By heating the fat with water to prevent burning, or with 
thin slices of raw potato, the water evaporates and the 

143 



144 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

steam carries off the odors or gases. The organic matters 
in the fat are decomposed or deposited as sediment and 
adhere to the shced potato. Clarified fat or dripping an- 
swers for many purposes in cookery, — sauteing, basting 
roast meat, greasing pans, and as shortening for bread, plain 
pastry, and gingerbread. 

Strain into the clarified fat any clear, melted fat, having 
no water, but fat skimmed from boiled meat and soup stock 
should be clarified. The fat from roast pork, roast beef, 
sausages, and veal may be used without further heating; 
also bacon fat in a small amount if not too brown. 

Recipe, No. 57. Clarified Fat or Drippings 

Save any scraps or pieces of fat. Cut into half -inch cubes, 
put in pan, and cover with cold water. Place in an oven 
and cook slowly for four or five hours, or until the scraps 
are quite brown and the water evaporated. Several slices 
of raw potato put in with the fat will aid in the clarifying. 
When slightly cooled, strain and set away to cool. 

Always clarify and strain fat after using it for frying. 

PORK PRODUCTS 

chemical composition 

* Water Protein 

Pork Chops 41.8 13.4 

Smoked Ham 34.8 14.2 

Smoked Bacon 17.4 9.1 



Water Protein Fat Ash 

Pork Chops Smoked Ham Smoked Bacon Smoked Ham 
Smoked Ham Pork Chops Smoked Ham Smoked Bacon 
Smoked Bacon Smoked Bacon Pork Chops Pork Chops 

Recipe, No. 58. Bacon 

Do not buy bacon by the pound, nor have it cut in thick 
slices if cut at the market, but purchase it by the whole 



Fat 


Ash 


24.2 


.8 


33.4 


4.2 


62.2 


4.1 



FATS 145 

strip, freshly cured. It will keep well if the paper and burlap 
cover are replaced whenever opened, and is as much a neces- 
sity in the storeroom as is a supply of flour, sugar, or any 
other staple article of food. It has no equal as an appetizer 
for breakfast or in helping out when there is but a limited 
supply of other meat. Served with omelets or some other 
forms of eggs, crisp curly bacon is all the meat necessary for 
a summer breakfast. It is invaluable to boil with greens or 
other vegetables. The fat of bacon is one of the most easily 
digested forms of fat, as the curing and smoking seem to have 
given it some qualities which render it less objectionable 
than when fresh. Many physicians prescribe it in place of 
cod liver oil. 

Shave off the hard, lean strip from bacon, also the smoked 
edges and rind as far back on the strip as you require for 
one meal. Then with a very sharp knife shave off in slices 
not more than an eighth of an inch thick. Lay them in a 
hot frying pan and turn as soon as transparent; cook a 
moment on the other side, tip the spider and let the fat drain 
away from the bacon. Then serve alone or with eggs, 
beefsteak, veal cutlets, liver or oysters. The slices may be 
laid in a fine wire broiler and cooked over a clear hot fire, 
or the broiler laid in a pan and the whole placed in a hot 
oven until transparent. 

Keep the bacon in a cold place that it may be hard and 
firm before slicing, and if not ready to fry immediately, put 
the slices in the refrigerator until wanted. 

Recipe, No. 59. Corn Fritters or Corn Oysters 

1 c. corn pulp. J tsp. salt. 

1 egg. I tsp. pepper. 

2 tbsp. flour. 

Remove husks and silk. Run the point of a knife through 
each row of kernels, or shave off a thin paring merely to 
open the kernel. With the back of the knife press out the 
pulp. Add the egg well beaten, flour, and seasoning. Do not 
add milk unless the corn be so dry that it will not hold together, 
or if the corn be scanty and it must be made to ^* go farther/' 



146 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Use a generous measure of pepper if you wish to bring out 
an oyster flavor. Cook in hot, salt pork fat, or butter; 
drop from a tablespoon in small oval shape and turn over 
when brown. There should be just flour enough to hold the 
egg and corn together. 

Recipe, No. 60. Baked Sausages 

There is much spattering of fat when sausages are cooked 
on top of the stove, and it saves work to bake them; if 
watched they are less likely to be hard and dry. Pour boil- 
ing water over them and let them stand five minutes, drain 
and put on a granite plate and cook in a hot oven, turning 
over as soon as slightly brown. They should be well cooked 
but not hard. If you like, as soon as the fat has baked out, 
have ready some apples, quartered and cored, and pared if the 
skins are tough, and lay the pieces in the fat and cook till soft. 

Recipe, No. 61. Creamed Dried Beef and Sausages 

Cut four links of sausage into inch pieces, cook them gently 
in one pint of boiling water for ten minutes. Skim off the 
fat and stir in one-half pound of dried beef, shaved thin and 
torn into bits. Wet one and one-half teaspoons of flour in 
cold water and stir it in, add salt if needed and serve it with 
baked potatoes, or steamed brown bread. 

Recipe, No. 62. Fried or Sauted Fish 

Smelts, perch, trout, and other small pan fish may be 
fried whole. Cod, halibut, and other thick fish should be 
skinned and boned and cut into slices one inch thick and 
two or three inches square. Fish for frying should be cleaned 
thoroughly, dried, and seasoned with salt, then covered with 
flour, or fine meal, or fine bread crumbs, then dipped in 
beaten eggy then in crumbs again. Or they may be dipped 
in flour paste instead of eggy before dipping in the crumbs. 
Fry in deep, smoking hot fat, or saute them in a small 
amount of hot, salt pork fat, from two to five minutes. Drain 
on paper, and serve with tomato sauce. 



LESSON XVII 
SHELL-FISH 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Water Protein Fat 

Oysters 88.3 6.0 1.3 

Clams 80.8 10.6 1.1 

Lobsters 30.7 5.9 .7 



Carbo- 
hydrates 

3.3 

5.2 

.2 



Ash 

1.3 
2.1 

.8 



Water 


Protein 


Oysters 

Clams 

Lobsters 


Clams 

Oysters 

Lobsters 



Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

Oysters Clams Clams 

Clams Oysters Oysters 

Lobsters Lobsters Lobsters 



1 



OYSTERS 

Oysters are used more extensively and are more highly 
prized for food than any other shell-fish. They are easily 
digested when fresh and only slightly cooked, but when 
over-cooked they are tough and leathery and therefore not 
digested easily. 

They contain so little nutriment, however, in proportion 
to their cost, that they are an expensive food. They are 
useful in convalesence on account of their agreeable flavor 
and also as an appetizer at the beginning of a meal. But 
they furnish little energy for either brain or muscles. As in 
the case of all fish care should be taken that the oysters are 
fresh. 

Recipe, No. 63. Raw Oysters 

Wash and scrub the shells ; open with an oyster opener 
or blunt edged pick. Cut under the connecting muscle and 
serve in the hollow shell, in a plate of ice, with lemon or 
horse-radish. 

147 



148 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 64. Roast Oysters (in Shell) 

Scrub the shells thoroughly. Put the oysters into a pan, 
flat side up, in order that the hollow side may make a cup to 
retain the juice. Bake or cook under a gas flame until the 
shells open. Remove the top shell and serve at once. 

Recipe, No. 65. To Prepare Oysters for Cooking 

Pour one half cup cold water over one quart of oysters ; 
then with clean hands take out the oysters separately, and 
remove any bits of shell or sea-weed. Serious accidents have 
often resulted from the presence of pieces of shell. The 
oyster liquor is seldom used, as enough comes from the oysters 
in cooking, but if desired it should be strained before using. 

Recipe, No. 66. To Parboil Oysters in their Liquor 

Put them in a saucepan without water ; stir or shake 
the pan slightly; as soon as heated, sufficient liquor 
comes from them to prevent burning. When the edges 
curl and the oysters look plump instead of flat, they are 
cooked. It takes but a few minutes, and care must be 
taken not to over-cook them. When seasoned with salt, 
pepper, and butter it is called a plain roast ; if put on toast, 
a fancy roast. 

Recipe, No. 67. Fried or Sauted Oysters 

Cover large, prepared oysters with fine cracker crumbs 
seasoned with salt and pepper. Melt a little butter in a 
frying-pan. Brown the oysters on each side and serve very 
hot ; or cover with fine bread crumbs, egg and crumbs, and 
fry in deep, smoking hot fat. 

Recipe, No. 68. Stewed Oysters 

1 c. milk scalded. J tsp. pepper. 

1 pt. oysters. 1 tbsp. butter. 

When the milk is scalding hot, put the prepared oysters 
into another saucepan and heat them until the edges curl; 



SHELL-FISH 149 

add the pepper, butter, and salt, if needed, and the hot milk. 
Serve at once. 

Recipe, No. 69. Scalloped Oysters 

1 pt. oysters. I tsp. salt. 

1 c. cracker crumbs. J tsp. pepper, 

f c. melted butter. 

Prepare the oysters and season them with the salt and 
pepper. Stir the crumbs in the butter with a fork. Butter 
a shallow dish, put in one fourth of the crumbs, then one 
half of the oysters, another one fourth of the crumbs, the 
remaining oysters, and a thick layer of crumbs on the top. 
Bake twenty minutes, or until the crumbs are brown and 
the juice bubbles up on the edges. 

In doubling the rule do not double the crackers, for it takes 
no more for the lower and upper layers, only for the middle 
layer. Half as many more will be sufficient. 

Recipe, No. 70. Oyster Chowder 

1 tbsp. salt pork dice. 1 pt. oysters. 

1 minced onion. 1 c. to 1 pt. white sauce. 

1 c. hot water. Oyster crackers. 

1 pt. thin sliced raw potatoes. 

Cook the diced pork until crisp, being careful not to burn 
it ; cook the onion in the fat until slightly colored ; add the 
hot water and stir well ; then strain this water into the stew- 
pan, and add the sliced potatoes. Cook until soft, about 
ten minutes. Put in the oysters which have been picked 
over and freed from the shell ; add the strained oyster liquor 
and the white sauce, and a few oyster crackers. When the 
oysters are plump, serve. 

Recipe, No. 71. Clam Chowder 

i pk. clams in shell, or a can 1 pt. clam liquor. 

of clams. 1 qt. sliced raw potatoes. 

2 tbsp. salt pork fat. ^ i tsp. pepper 

1 sliced onion. 1 pt. thick white sauce. 

1 pt. water. 6 butter crackers, split. 



150 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Wash and scrub the shells ; put them into a kettle, add 
one half cup water and cover tightly. Let them steam until 
the shells open. Remove the shells, thin membrane, and 
black end. Cut fine all but the soft part. Cook the onion 
in the pork fat until slightly colored but not burnt and 
strain the fat into a stewpan with the water, clam liquor, and 
potatoes. When potatoes are done, add the pepper, white 
sauce, clams, and crackers. Add more milk or clam water 
if desired and serve as soon as hot. 



Recipe, No. 72. Steamed or Creamed Clams 

When more simple methods are desired, after steaming 
and opening the clams, heat them in the clam water, and 
season with butter and pepper, and vinegar if preferred; 
or serve them in white sauce. 



LESSON XVIII 
POTATOES 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Wateb Protein Fat Carbohy- Ash 

DBATES 

62.6 1.8 .1 14.7 .8 

Potatoes are almost three fourths water. The soHd 
matter consists largely of starch and cellulose, with a small 
quantity of protein, and mineral matter, — chiefly potash 
salts, held in solution in the juices. About a quarter of the 
whole potato is waste material. 

New potatoes, unless perfectly ripe, contain but little 
starch. In late summer and in autumn potatoes are in their 
best condition but the amount of starch and protein diminishes 
by keeping, and in spring or when the potatoes begin to 
sprout, a part of the starch changes to gum and this makes 
them sticky or waxy; some of the water has evaporated, 
the cell membranes are dry and hard, and their value as 
food has diminished. When sprouts appear remove them at 
once. 

The amount of protein in potatoes, though small, is more 
than that in any other of the moist vegetables. This, to- 
gether with the fact that they contain valuable mineral 
matter, are cheap and palatable, combine well with other 
foods, and are easily cultivated and kept, makes them a 
favorite vegetable food. 

But they have been greatly overrated and should not be 
eaten alone, or in too great proportion. They contain little 
tissue forming material; and if they be depended upon 
mainly for sustenance, so large a bulk of them is required 

151 



152 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

that the system Is overtasked. They should be eaten with 
fat, fish, or meat to make perfect food. 

As they contain starch, they must be cooked to be whole- 
some, and it is important that little or none of their nutriment 
be lost in the process. 

The most economical methods of cooking potatoes are 
baking, steaming, and boiling. In the first two methods the 
potatoes are cooked whole and unpared ; and only those of 
the best quality are suitable for cooking in this way. In 
boiling potatoes it is now the custom to pare them first, as it 
saves time when serving the dinner. 

Scientists tell us that it is wasteful to pare potatoes before 
cooking, as most of the protein and mineral matter is in the 
outside layers, and unless the paring is very thin a large 
part of the valuable matter is lost. 

But until potatoes are all of good quality at all seasons of 
the year, there will be times when paring is necessary. 

Except at exorbitant prices, we cannot buy selected 
potatoes, but must take them as they come ; many of them 
gashed by the hoe, or bruised in transportation, or green from 
ripening above the ground. They are subject to disease from 
wrong soil or climatic conditions, and are frequently hollow 
or black hearted, yet good on the outside. If cooked in 
their skins these defects penetrate the whole potato, and at 
meal time you may have a short allowance. But by divid- 
ing the potato and paring you may save the good part and 
if the whole must be discarded, you are spared the annoyance 
of cooking it with the good potatoes and losing the labor of 
paring it. 

Potatoes belong to a poisonous family and the skin con- 
tains a bitter substance, which is set free by the heat and goes 
off with the steam, provided the potatoes are opened or un- 
covered as soon as done. If not, the potato absorbs it and 
becomes bitter. 

Some persons find boiled potatoes difficult to digest, espe- 
cially when they are cooked in stews and chowders, where the 
potato water is part of the stew. A better way is to scald 
sliced potatoes five minutes, and drain them before adding 
them to the stew. 



POTATOES 153 

The skin of new potatoes is very thin and much of it comes 
off in the scrubbing and the remainder may be scraped off 
without taking the valuable portion next below. Potatoes 
that are not to be pared should be sound, above all suspicion ; 
scrub them with a brush to remove all the earthy matter 
adhering to the skin, using a knife if scraping is needed and 
to dig out the eyes. 

If you remember to put the stewpan with fresh water over 
the fire first, the water will be boiling and ready for the pota- 
toes as soon as they are scrubbed. They need no soaking, 
if they are clean. It is only in the spring when potatoes 
are shrivelled and gummy, that soaking improves them, and 
then only after they are pared. Soaking supplies the water 
the potatoes have lost, dissolves the gum and makes them 
less sticky. Drop all potatoes into water as soon as pared, 
for they turn brown if exposed to the air ; and except when 
using old potatoes, do not pare them until about ready to 
use them. 

If we examine a slice of potato under the microscope, we 
can understand why in cooking it should be put into boiling 
water rather than into cold. The starch is found throughout 
the potato, enclosed in cells, the walls of which are thin 
membranes of cellulose. Each cell contains ten or twelve 
grains surrounded by a watery, albuminous juice. In cook- 
ing the potato, this juice becomes boiling hot, the starch 
grains absorb it, the wall of cellulose is softened and is easily 
burst by the swollen starch, so that the potato which before 
cooking was wet and hard is now filled with soft mealy 
starch. 

Were we to cook the potatoes by putting them into cold 
water, especially if they have been pared, some of the starch, 
gum, and potash salts will be drawn out and the starch will 
not begin to cook until the water boils. Hence though the 
potatoes may look and taste well, no time is gained in 
cooking and they must have lost some portion of their 
nutriment. 

But if put into freshly boiling water this coagulates the 
albuminous juices and they are retained in the potato. 
Potatoes should have plenty of room and boil gently but 



154 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

steadily to prevent loss of surface by rubbing against one 
another. Salt should be added when half done, in propor- 
tion of one teaspoon to one quart of water. 

And lastly, — and most important of all the steps in the 
process, the potatoes should be taken up the moment they 
are done, — that is, when a fork or large needle will penetrate 
them easily. Do not break them by frequent piercing. 
Drain at once, remove the cover, and shake, to let the water 
inside which has not been absorbed by the starch pass off as 
steam. Lay a folded napkin over to keep them hot until 
ready to serve, which should not be delayed longer than 
needed to take up the other food. 

If we cook them after all the starch is softened the skin 
will burst and the starch on the outside will absorb the bitter 
boiling water in the kettle ; after a time the potato will 
break up and partly dissolve and we will have a bitter, pasty 
gruel instead of a firm but soft and mealy potato. 



Recipe, No. 73. Directions for Boiled Potatoes 
1 qt. boiling water. 6 large potatoes. 1 tsp. salt. 

Do not Pare Potatoes, if new, or sound, or to be served 
whole, or in salad ; or to be warmed over, or if you wish to 
save substance and flavor. Select of uniform size, scrub, 
and scrape where needed ; do not soak ; put in cold place 
if not ready to cook. Put into boiling, salted water to cover, 
cook gently twenty minutes if small and thirty minutes 
if large. Drain quickly, cover with a napkin and keep 
hot. 

Pare Potatoes, if necessary to save time before serving, or 
if very large and irregular in shape, or of inferior quality, or 
old and withered. Cover with cold water as soon as pared, 
but do not soak except when old. 

When potatoes are needed quickly, or for potato soup, or 
fishballs, or to be served as mashed or riced, wash, pare and 
cut in quarters ; if to use in stews, chowders, or scalloped 
mixtures, cut in slices or small cubes ; if for hashed brown, 
chop into bits. Scald them first for stews, etc. 



POTATOES 155 

Recipe, No. 74. Riced Potato 

Mash the potatoes as soon as they are boiled and drained. 
Rub them with a wooden masher through a strainer into a 
hot dish. 



Recipe, No. 75. Mashed Potato 

To one pint of hot boiled potatoes, add one tablespoon of 
butter, one half teaspoon of salt, a speck of pepper, and 
enough hot milk to moisten. Mash in the saucepan in 
which they were boiled ; beat with a fork till light and creamy, 
and turn out lightly on a hot dish. 

Recipe, No. 76. Potato Cakes 

Make cold mashed potato into small round cakes about 
one half inch thick. Put them on a baking tin, and brush 
them over with milk. Bake in a hot oven till golden brown. 

Questions on Lessons XVI, XVII, and XVIII 

What is the value of oysters as What is their principal value in 

food? a diet? 

Why are they so often served Do potatoes require a hot 

at the beginning of a meal? oven? 

Why is it necessary for them to What sized potatoes are the 

be absolutely fresh? best for baking? 

How do pork products and Why should we learn to eat 

shell-fish compare in fat? fat? 

protein? water? What is the principal value of 

Why do boiled potatoes give fat in the diet ? 

us little energy? 



LESSON XIX 



EXPERIMENT WITH ALBUMIN IN MEAT 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MEAT 



Meat 


Wateb 


Protein 


Fat Ash 


Beef: round 


. . . 60.7 


19.0 


12.8 1.0 


loin . 


. . . . 52.5 


16.1 


17.5 .9 


neck . 


. . . . 45.9 


14.5 


11.9 .7 


Mutton: leg 


. . . . 5L2 


15.1 


14.7 .8 


Lamb: breast 


. . . . 45.5 


15.4 


19.1 .8 


leg . 


. . . . 52.9 


15.9 


13.6 .9 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Ash 


Beef round 


Beef round 


Breast lamb 


Beef round 


Lamb leg 


Loin beef 
^[Turkey 


Turkey 


1 Loin beef 


Loin beef 


Loin beef 


Leg lamb 


Leg mutton 


Leg lamb 


Leg mutton 


Leg mutton 


Fowl 


Breast lamb 


Leg lamb 


-i Breast lamb 


Neek beef 


Leg mutton 


Beef round 


Turkey 


Breast lamb 


Neck beef 


Fowl 


Chicken 


Chicken 


Fowl 


Neck beef 


Fowl 


Turkey 


Chicken 


Chicken 


Neck beef 



Myosin or muscle albumin is found in the juices and fibres 
of lean meat. A piece of lean meat, if put into boiling water, 
shrivels and contracts, and the juices stay in the meat. The 
water is unchanged. But these small pieces of meat which 
were put into cold water at the beginning of the lesson have 
colored the water red and given it a taste, which shows that 
the juices have been drawn into the water. Muscle juice 
consists of water holding in solution protein, salts, and ex- 
tractives. On heating this water, we find the red color 
changes to brown, and the water seems thicker. Soon the 
brown substance becomes harder, separates entirely from 

156 



EXPERIMENT WITH ALBUMIN IN MEAT 157 

the water, and, when the water stops boiling, settles. Muscle 
albumin i^oagulates at 160° Fah. 

By this experiment we have learned that cold water draws 
out albuminous juices and holds them in solution, and that 
boiling water hardens albumin. 



Recipe, No. 77. Beef Tea 

1 lb. shin of beef. I tsp. salt. 

1 pt. cold water. 

Scrape the meat very fine and put it into the cold salted 
water. Let it stand one to two hours. Put it into double 
boiler and cook thirty minutes. Press it through a strainer. 
Remove the fat with paper. This is very strong beef tea and 
may have more water added if liked. 



LESSON XX 



POULTRY 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 



Poultry: chicken 
fowl . 
turkey 



Water 
43.7 
47.1 
42.4 



Protein 
12.8 
13.7 
16.1 



Fat 

1.4 

12.3 

18.4 



Ash 
.7 
.7 
.8 



Water 
Fowl 
Chicken 
Turkey 



Protein 
Turkey 
Fowl 
Chicken 



Fat 

Turkey 

Fowl 

Chicken 



Ash 
Turkey 
fChicken 
Fowl 



The flesh of poultry has less red blood and is drier than the 
flesh of animals. It is not marbled with fat, and as it abounds 
in phosphates it is valuable food, particularly for invalids. 
The fibres are not closely connected by tough membranes, 
and are therefore easily separated and digested. 

The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, 
smooth moist skin, plump breast, and the cartilage on the 
end of the breastbone is soft and pliable. 

Pin feathers always indicate a young bird and long hairs 
an older one. Old fowls have long thin necks and feet, and 
sharp scales ; the end of the breastbone is hard, the flesh has 
a purplish tinge, and there is usually a large amount of fat. 



To Prepare a Fowl for Cooking 

Pick out the pin feathers, remove the hairs by singeing 
over a blaze, and wipe with a damp cloth. Cut off the head, 
slip the skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close 
to the body, leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. 

158 



POULTRY 159 

Remove the windpipe, pull the crop away from the skin 
on the neck and breast and cut it off close to the body. 

Never cut the skin on the breast to remove the crop, but 
take it out from the end of the neck. Cut out the oil bag 
in the tail. Make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, 
loosen the fat from the skin, and separate the membranes 
lying close to the body. Keep the fingers up close to the 
breastbone until you can reach in beyond the liver and heart, 
and loosen on either side down toward the back. This will 
enable you to avoid breaking the gall bladder which lies 
on the left side under the liver. When the membranes are 
all loosened, clasp the fingers round the gizzard and draw 
everything out. The kidneys and lungs wall not come with 
the others, and must be looked for in the hollows near the 
backbone and between the ribs. Wipe the chicken inside 
and outside with a damp cloth. 

If the chicken is to he baked or boiled whole fill the skin 
where the crop was with stuffing, and put some inside the 
body. Skewer or tie the legs and wings close to the 
body. 

If the chicken is to be broiled split it down the entire 
length of the backbone, before removing the entrails. 

// to be stewed or fricasseed, cut off the legs and wings at 
the joints. Cut from near the vent through the membrane 
lying between the end of the breastbone and tail, down to the 
backbone, on either side. Then remove the entrails. Break 
off the backbone just below the ribs, cut through the cartilage 
dividing the ribs, and separate the collar-bone from the 
breast. 

To clean the giblets : Slip off the thin sac round the heart 
and cut out the veins and arteries. Remove the liver and 
cut off all that looks green near the gall bladder. Be careful 
not to break the gall bladder. Trim off the fat and mem- 
branes from the gizzard, cut through the thick part, open it, 
and remove the inner lining without breaking it. Cut off all 
the white gristle and use only the thick fleshy part. The 
trimmed gizzard, liver, and heart are all that are used. 
Wash and soak them in cold water, then stew them until 
tender. 



160 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 78. Roast Chicken 

Clean and prepare the chicken as directed. 

Stuffing, Moisten one cup cracker or soft bread crumbs 
with one fourth cup melted butter, season with mixed 
sweet herbs. If moist stuffing is desired add hot water. 

Place the chicken on one side on a rack in a dripping-pan. 
Rub all over with salt, and soft butter, or dripping. Put 
three tablespoons of chicken fat or beef dripping over it and 
in the pan. Sprinkle two tablespoons of flour over the pan 
to brown the dripping. Use no water at first. Put the 
pan in a very hot oven with the oven rack underneath to 
keep the fat from burning. 

In five minutes check the heat, baste with the fat, and 
when the flour is brown add a cup of hot water and baste 
often, adding more hot water as it boils away. Turn the 
chicken that it may brown uniformly, and baste often that 
it may not become dry. 

Bake a four pound chicken one and one half hours, or until 
the joints separate easily. Pour off nearly all the fat, thicken 
the liquid in the pan with flour wet in cold water, cook ten 
minutes, and strain the gravy before serving. 

Recipe, No. 79. Chicken Fricassee 

Clean the chicken, and at the joints cut into pieces for 
serving. Cover with boiling water ; add two teaspoons salt 
and one quarter teaspoon of pepper. 

Simmer till the meat is tender. Remove the large bones 
and cook them again in the water. Dredge the meat with 
flour and brown in hot dripping. Put on toast on a hot 
dish. 

Strain the broth and remove the fat. To one cup chicken 
broth add one cup milk and thicken with four tablespoons 
flour cooked in two tablespoons butter, as directed for 
white sauce. Add more salt and pepper if needed, and 
one fourth teaspoon celery salt and one teaspoon lemon 
juice. 

If a white fricassee is desired omit the browning. 



POULTRY 



161 



Recipe, No. 80. 



1 q. cranberries. 

2 c. sugar. 



Cranberries 

1 c. cold water. 



Pick over and wash the cranberries, put them in a granite 
saucepan, sprinkle the sugar on top, pour on the water, and 
after they begin to boil cook for ten minutes, closely covered. 
Do not stir them. Push them down with a wooden spoon 
if they are inclined to boil over. The berries will be tender, 
will jelly when cold, and are much nicer than when sifted. 



Recipe, No. 81. Braised Rabbit or Squirrel 

Skin and clean a young squirrel or rabbit. Cut into pieces 
for frying ; rub each piece with salt and pepper, and dust with a 
trifle of mace ; dredge well with flour and saute to a rich brown 
in half butter and half lard. Remove the meat from the 
pan, add three tablespoons of flour, and stir until it is brown. 
Add enough soup stock or hot water to make a gravy as 
thick as cream. Place the meat in a porcelain-lined pot, or 
earthenware ^^ cooking-crock,^' or casserole, pour over it the 
gravy and a cup of tomatoes, which have been well stewed 
down and seasoned with salt, pepper and a grated onion. 
Cover tightly, stand it on a muffln ring in a moderate oven, 
and let it cook for three hours. Serve in the dish. 



LESSON XXI 
FIRST LESSON IN DOUGH 

Wheat, rye, corn, buckwheat, and some other grains are 
ground coarse, and called meal ; or fine, and called flour ; 
and in these coarse or fine forms they are used in a variety of 
ways, but always with water or some other liquid. 

These mixtures of moistened meal or flour are called 
doughs if the mass is only slightly moistened, and batters 
if enough liquid is used to make a mixture that will pour, or 
that can be beaten. Dough is from a word meaning '* to 
wet or moisten " ; and batter is from one meaning " to 
beat.'' 

Other ingredients are added to change and improve the 
texture and flavor, and then these mixtures are cooked in a 
variety of ways, — boiling, steaming, baking, and frying. 
They are classed under the general names of breads, cakes, 
pastry, and puddings, and in one form or another are prob- 
ably used in every family at every meal. 

When properly combined and prepared, they afford cheap, 
wholesome, and palatable forms of food. 

Flour or meal, if merely wet, and then heated or cooked, 
will be dry, tough, and compact, and when eaten it will be 
difficult for the digestive fluids to penetrate the mass. To be 
digested easily, doughs and batters must be light and porous 
and there are various ways of making them so. One of these 
ways is illustrated in the recipe for suet pudding made by 
the use of baking-powder. 

Baking-powder is a mixture of an acid salt (cream of tartar) 
and a carbonate of an alkali (soda), — substances which 
do not act upon each other when dry. Put a teaspoon of 
baking powder into two tablespoons of water and see what 

162 



FIRST LESSON IN DOUGH 163 

happens. A chemical reaction takes place, by which carbon 
dioxide gas is liberated. This gas, as it tries to escape, fills 
the liquid, and causes effervescence. The gas soon disappears 
and the liquid is still, and is neither acid nor alkaline, be- 
cause the soda and cream of tartar have neutralized each 
other. But if there had been too much soda in the baking- 
powder the liquid would have had an alkaline taste, and if too 
much acid, an acid taste. 

On account of the difficulty of measuring these two sub- 
stances in the correct proportion, manufacturers have mixed 
them by weight and called them baking-powders. It is 
safer to use soda and cream of tartar in the form of baking- 
powder. 

In making this pudding, if baking-powder be put into the 
flour and mixed thoroughly, so that every particle of flour 
will have its share of the powder, when the flour is wet and 
made into dough, carbon dioxide gas will be liberated and 
try to escape, as it did from the water ; but on account of the 
sticky and elastic nature of the gluten in the wheat flour, the 
gas cannot escape so readily, but will stretch and expand 
the dough and make it full of bubbles or cells. Then, if the 
dough be cooked quickly, before the gas escapes, the starch 
grains will be ruptured by the combined effect of heat and 
moisture, the glutinous walls of the cells will be hardened, 
and we shall have a light, porous loaf of pudding. Loaf is 
from the word hlifian, '' to raise, to lift up.'' This recipe 
also shows us how dough may be made more tender by the 
use of fat or shortening. Suet is one form of beef fat. It is 
used in doughs or flour mixtures to make them tender and 
is a wholesome and economical form of fat, and particularly 
suitable for a winter diet. By adding different flavoring in- 
gredients, such as ginger, molasses, nutmeg, or fruit, a vari- 
ety of puddings may be made from one formula. 



Recipe, No. 82. Plain Suet Pudding 

1 pt. flour. J cup beef suet. 

2 tsp. baking powder. Cold water to make a soft 
i tsp. salt. dough. 



164 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Mix the flour, baking-powder, and salt ; add the chopped 
suet and mix it well. Add the cold water gradually to form 
a soft dough. Grease a mould or several cups, fill to within an 
inch of the top, and cover with greased paper. Put the cups 
into a kettle of boiling water, enough to come half way 
up the mould. Cover the kettle and steam two hours if 
in a mould, and one hour if in cups. Serve on a hot platter, 
and eat with hot gravy or a sweet sauce. 

Recipe, No. 83. Fruit Suet Pudding 

Make the same as for plain suet pudding, adding to the dry 
ingredients : 

J c. currants. J c. sugar, 

i c. raisins. spk. nutmeg. 

2 sq. in. citron, sliced. 

Boil two to three hours. 



Recipe, No. 84. Steamed Brown Bread 

1 c. corn meal. ^ tsp. soda. 

1 c. rye meal. J c. molasses. 

i c. wheat flour. IJ c. sweet milk. 
I tsp. salt. 

Mix meal, flour, and salt. Mash the soda, sift it into the 
meal, and mix thoroughly. Add the molasses and milk, then 
beat well and turn into a greased mould, cover and steam 
two and one half hours. Or use small cups, cover with 
greased paper, and steam one hour. 



Recipe, No. 85. Christmas Pudding 

Mix two and one half cups flour, one teaspoon soda, one 
teaspoon each salt, cinnamon, mace and allspice, and two 
teaspoons baking-powder. Have one cup raisins, one fourth 
cup each citron and figs, and one half cup pecans cut fine 
and floured slightly. Stir into the flour mixture one cup 
milk, one cup molasses, and two thirds cup softened butter ; 
add fruit and turn into buttered moulds. Steam three hours. 



FIRST LESSON IN DOUGH 165 

To Chop Suet 

Cut into small pieces, remove the membranes, shave 
each piece in thin slices, and chop on a board. Or, if a 
large quantity is to be prepared, sprinkle the pieces with 
flour, and chop them in a tray in a cold room. This will 
prevent the suet from becoming soft and sticky. 

To Clean Dried Currants 

Put them in a squash strainer, and sprinkle thickly with 
flour. Rub them well until they are separated, and the 
flour, grit, and fine stems have passed through the strainer. 
Then place the strainer and currants in a pan of water and 
wash thoroughly. Lift the strainer and currants together, 
and change the water and wash again until the water is 
clear. Drain between towels, then pick over carefully and 
dry them in a sunny place or between towels, but do not 
harden them by putting them into the oven. 

To Stone Raisins 

Pour boiling water over them, a few at a time. When 
cool enough to handle, drain and rub each raisin between 
the thumb and finger till the seeds" come out clean, then cut 
or tear apart, or chop, if wanted very fine. 

Recipe, No. 86. Maize Pudding 

1§ c. corn meal. i tsp. allspice. 

i c. flour. 1 c. sweet milk. 

i tsp. salt. i c. P. R. molasses. 

1 tsp. soda. 1 c. sour milk. 

2 tsp. ginger. 1| c. stoned raisins. 

Turn into a buttered pudding-mould, place the mould 
in boiling water, and boil two hours. 

Recipe, No. 87. Fruit-syrup Sauce 

1 c. fruit-syrup. 1 tsp. corn-starch, 

i c. sugar. 1 tsp. butter. 



166 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOQK 

Use the syrup from apricots, peaches, cherries, quinces, or 
any fruit you prefer. The amount of sugar will depend upon 
the acidity of the fruit. Mix the corn-starch with the sugar, 
add the syrup, and boil all together five minutes. Add 
butter last. 

Recipe, No. 88. Creamy and Hard Sauce 

Cream one fourth cup of butter, add slowly one half to 
one cup powdered sugar, beat in gradually two tablespoons 
rich fruit syrup, or any fresh fruit juice, and two to four 
tablespoons thick cream (whipped or not, as you have 
time). Serve hot by standing bowl over boiling water just 
before serving, and stirring only till melted and creamy. 
Or, serve cold; or, if for hard sauce, omit cream and pack 
it into a dish for serving and chill till firm. 

Questions on Lessons XIX^ XX, and XXI 

What meat would you buy to Why do we cook grains, whether 
secure the most protein? whole or ground, in water? 

How does the flesh of poultry What is dough ? 

differ from that of animals? What is a batter? 

What parts of a fowl are not In what forms are flour and 
used as food ? meal cooked ? 

What two ways of cooking What is the easiest way to 
grains have we learned make dough light? 

about? What is baking-powder? 

What are the grains called when What is suet ? 

ground? How do you prepare raisins, 

Are there any other kinds of currants, and suet for cook- 
flour besides that made from ing? 
wheat ? 



LESSON XXII 

HOW TO PLAN AND PREPARE A 
BREAKFAST 

For a breakfast, adapted to a small family, of moderate 
means, in good physical condition, sedentary occupation, 
and suited for a cool morning. 

Menu: Coffee, oatmeal, toast, bacon, and hot apple 
sauce. 

We have in the coffee, cereal and apple sauce, a small pro- 
portion of the water needed ; a larger part having been taken 
fresh on arising. We have starch in the toast and cereal, 
sugar in the coffee and fruit and possibly on the cereal, 
although many people dislike sugar in the morning, and for 
such there is enough heat giving food in the fat of the cream, 
fat bacon, and butter. There is but little protein, but the 
gluten in the toast and oatmeal will be sufficient, for this 
menu is planned with reference to the other meals of the day, 
which will contain more. In the bacon we have some 
mineral matter, and the appetizing flavor of the crisp tissue. 
This appetizer is augmented by the dextrine on the toast 
and the acid of the apple, for no matter how good our ap- 
petite we need variety and something to help develop flavors. 

After planning the meal, the first thing to be considered 
is the order of work in its preparation ; for with other meals 
to prepare and the daily work to do, time in the morning is 
an important factor. How to make every step and every 
dish count for its utmost and have every dish ready at the 
time for serving requires no little thought and experience. 
We have learned how to prepare all the dishes in the menu 
and the work should be done in the following order. These 
directions apply also to the preparation of the home break- 

167 



168 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

fast. The cereal requires the longest time, the bacon the 
least. 

If in entering the kitchen you pass the sink in going to the 
range, turn on the faucet, let the water run while you take 
the boiler apart and lift the measure cup from its hook; 
put the needed amount of water into each part and take them 
to the range ; light two burners if a gas range is used, and 
put the top boiler over the nearer burner ; in the few minutes 
before the water boils bring the bacon from the refrigerator, 
and the bread and the apples to the table ; slice the bread 
and bacon, returning the remainder to their respective places. 
Wipe the cup, measure the meal and salt, and stir them into 
the rapidly boiling water, and after stirring till thick, set 
the boilers together and adjust the flame. This will need 
no further attention. Put the coffee pot, with the needed 
amount of cold water, over the front burner, everything 
needed for this being found on the table or shelf. While 
the water is coming slowly to the boiling point, lay the 
breakfast table, which requires but a few minutes if you 
follow the sensible method of order and handiness. Next, 
quarter, core, and pare the apples, just enough for one 
meal ; rinse and turn them into a stewpan from the s^elf ; 
add cold water barely to cover the bottom of the pan, 
cover closely and set them on the range. The w^ater by 
this time has boiled a few minutes, add the coffee and egg 
shell, and after boiling five minutes set back over the sim- 
merer, and the apples tightly covered, over the front 
burner. 

For two or three minutes it will need no attention, and 
you may light the toasting burner, put the pan for the bacon 
on the range, and while you are watching and turning toast, 
your eyes and ears are on the alert for the first indication 
that the apple water has boiled out. You will know because 
no steam escapes and there is no sound of bubbling; but 
be sure, before your sense of smell catches any hint of scorch- 
ing, to lift the cover quickly, and if the apple is soft, add sugar 
and butter or salt, stir and beat quickly, and turn out at 
once. Meanwhile keep your eyes on the toast and remove 
to a hot plate as soon as done. Then cook the bacon. 



HOW TO PLAN AND PREPARE A BREAKFAST 169 

Follow this general method in preparing other meals. 
Foods that require the longest time for cooking, or that are 
to be served cold, should be prepared first. For persons 
who exercise freely out of doors, add to the menu a dish of 
warmed over meat or fish; use muffins instead of toast. 

Recipe, No. 89. Baked Apples 
1 tsp. sugar. 1 tbsp. water, to each apple. 

Wipe the apples, remove the core, and put them in a 
granite or earthen dish. Put the sugar in the center of 
each apple and the water in the dish. Bake in a hot oven 
from twenty to thirty minutes, or until soft, but not until 
broken. Baste twice with the syrup. 

Vary the method in this way. After coring, cut the apples 
in halves and make the core cavity deeper ; put them in the 
pan hollow side up ; heap the cavity with sugar and a bit 
of grated lemon rind, and add water to half this height. 
The halved fruit makes a cup which holds the syrup, allow- 
ing it to permeate the apple. 

Recipe, No. 90. Fresh Apple Sauce 

This is one of the acceptable dishes for breakfast. Do 
not attempt to make a large quantity, for it is never better 
than when fresh. 

Wipe the apples and divide inta quarters, or eighths if 
large, and in this way save yourself the trouble of not paring 
any but sound portions. Be careful to pick out every par- 
ticle of the hulls in the seed cavities. As you pare toss 
them into the kettle, which should be clean, white or porce- 
lain lined. A quart will make sufficient for six persons. 
Add water to just show among the pieces, cover with a 
granite cover that fits tightly to keep in the steam, and let 
them cook rapidly until soft. The time will depend upon the 
apple ; some varieties soften in ten minutes while others will 
take double that time. After once making it you can judge 
better than by follomng any arbitrary rule. Do not uncover 
them more than necessary. When they are all puffing above 



170 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the water and are soft when tried with a silver fork, add sugar 
to taste (half a cup is sufBcient unless the apples are very 
tart) and remove at once, stirring as the sugar melts, and 
this will beat the apple to a smooth mass. If they are 
tough and knurly there will be hard places in the sauce, 
but a fair mellow apple will cook uniformly. If eaten hot 
for breakfast a little butter is an addition. 

Recipe, No. 91. Baked Bananas 

Peel, halve them each way, allow one teaspoon sugar, 
one teaspoon lemon juice and half teaspoon butter for each 
banana ; put them in earthen baking dish ; nearly cover 
with hot water and bake about twenty minutes. 

Recipe, No. 92. Baked Quinces 

Wipe, core, fill cavities with sugar, half cover with hot 
water, bake till soft, baste with the syrup. Serve quinces 
hot and dot with butter. 



Recipe, No. 93. Hard Pears, Sweet Apples 

Wipe, steam till nearly tender, add sugar to the water, 
turn both into pan, and bake till soft. 



Vegetables 



LESSON XXIII 
VEGETABLES 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Water Protein Fat Carbo- Ash 

hydrates 



Tomatoes 








. 94.3 


0.9 0.4 


3.9 0.5 


Spinach . 








. . 92.3 


2.1 .3 


3.2 2.1 


Celery . 








. . 75.6 


.9 .1 


7.7 .9 


Squash . 








. . 44.2 


.7 .2 


4.5 A 


Potatoes 








. 62.6 


1.8 .1 


14.7 .8 


Cabbage 








. 77.7 


1.4 .2 


4.8 .9 


Peas, shelled 






. 74.6 


7.0 .5 


16.9 1.0 


T^ima Beans 






. 68.5 


7.1 .7 


22.0 1.7 


String Beans 






. . 83.0 


2.1 .3 


6.9 .7 


Water 


pROTEI:^ 


T Fat 


Garb oh ydr ate s Ash 


Tomatoes 


Lima Bei 


ms Lima Beans Lima Beans 


Spinach 


Spinach 


Peas 


Peas 


Peas 


Lima Beans 


String 


" String 


Tomatoes 


3 Potatoes 


Peas 


Beans 


Beans 


' Spinach 


Celery 


j Cabbage 
{Celery 


Cabbage 


. Spinach 


■ String 


String 


Celery 


Potatoes 


Beans 


Beans 


Potatoes 


Peas 


Cabbage 


Cabbage 


Cabbage 


String 


Lima 


f Celery 


Squash 


Squash 


Beans 


Beans 


\ Tomatoe 


s 1 Potatoes 


Tomatoes 


Tomatoes 


Potatoes 


Sqi 


las 


h 


Celery 


Spinach 


Squash 



Squash 

TIME-TABLE FOR BOILING VEGETABLES 

Green corn 5 to 10 m. 

Rice, peas, tomatoes, asparagus 15 to 20 m. 

Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach, 

cabbage 20 to 30 m. 

Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, 

cauliflower 30 to 45 m. 

String beans, shelled beans, oyster plant . . . 45 to 60 m. 

Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy, and wheat 1 to 2 hrs. 

171 



172 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Seasoning, One pint of vegetables, mashed or sliced, or 
one pint of small whole vegetables, requires two tablespoons 
butter, one teaspoon salt, one eighth teaspoon pepper. 
Squash, peas, and beans are improved by one teaspoon sugar. 
Milk, thin cream, or the vegetable liquid may be used to 
moisten such as are too dry. 

Recipe, No. 94. Stewed Tomatoes 

Empty a quart can of tomatoes into a granite pan having 
a broad surface, and put them over the fire. Add a two 
inch bit of a salt codfish and let them simmer until tender 
and well broken up. Mash and cut it frequently with a 
wooden spoon. When done add one or two tablespoons 
of sugar according to the acidity of the tomato, and two 
tablespoons of butter and a few slivers of canned red pepper, 
or lacking this use a dash of cayenne. Remove the bit of 
fish and add salt if needed and serve as a vegetable. The 
fish gives a new flavor and is very appetizing. Some prefer 
to sweeten the tomato with a bit of soda instead of sugar, 
but this is a matter of taste. Be sure that it cooks long 
enough, so there are no thick pieces of tomato floating round 
in a thin liquid. Yet it should not be too dry. 



LESSON XXIV 
VEGETABLES 

Under the name of vegetables we include one or more 
parts of a great variety of annual plants cultivated for 
food. 

Roots: beets, carrots, sweet potatoes, radishes, parsnips, 
turnips, and salsify. 

Tubers : potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, tapioca. 

Bulbs: onions, garlic. 

Stalks : asparagus, celery, leeks. 

Flowers : cauliflower, globe artichokes. 

Leaves: beet greens, cabbage, dandelion, lettuce, spinach, 
etc. 

Fruit: classed as vegetable fruit, cucumbers, egg plant, 
squash, tomatoes, sweet peppers. 

Seed vessels : string beans, okra. 

Seeds : beans, corn, peas, lentils. 

Vegetables contain all the food stuffs, but in varying pro- 
portion. 

Seeds are rich in protein, and are a good substitute for 
meat. 

Roots and tubers are rich in starch and sugar, help to make 
variety and give us more bulk than we have in the starchy 
cereals. 

Stalks, leaves, stems and fruit are rich in cellulose and 
water and are especially valuable in supplying the mineral 
matter which is less abundant in other common food mate- 
rials ; their cellulose provides the bulk desirable for normal 
digestion and their great variety makes the diet more attrac- 
tive. In summer they are refreshing after the heavy food of 
winter and being easily prepared, many of them needing 

173 



174 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

no cooking, they lessen the labor of getting a meal. But 
they cannot take the place of protein. 

Although improved transportation gives us fresh vege- 
tables all the year, many vegetables are best when they are 
in season, — that is at the time when they ripen in the lo- 
cality where they are to be used. Unseasonable products 
always command high prices, far beyond their real food 
value. Each season has a large variety of vegetables, which 
by cooking and serving in different ways will supply all that 
are needed for that time. 

A good brand of canned vegetables is better than those 
that are unseasonable, for the latter are not only expensive 
but frequently not well ripened and never strictly fresh. 

Selection. Select vegetables of uniform size, medium 
rather than large; sound, firm texture; smooth surface, 
free from green spots or brown blight, and but few bruised 
leaves ; pods crisp and easily snapped, or fresh, well-filled 
with tender seeds ; leaves and stalks crisp, tender, and juicy. 

Keeping Vegetables. Unless you have a cold, dry, dark 
cellar above the freezing point, do not buy winter vege- 
tables in large quantities. In a suitable place root vege- 
tables will keep in bins, and sometimes for a long time if 
packed in clean dry sand. Squashes need a dry high shelf, 
slightly warm, and should be spread apart. The stem should 
always be left on squash or pumpkins. 

Green vegetables are best if cooked the day they are 
gathered. When this is impossible, keep them in a dry 
cool place. Do not expose their inner texture to the air 
by removing nature's coverings. Even peas and corn which 
lose much in flavor by long-keeping, will keep better in 
their skins than if they are cooked and re-heated. Some 
housekeepers will not agree with this conclusion ; but it is 
not impossible that peas in the pod and corn unhusked may 
for a short time, although separated from the mother plant, 
draw moisture from the yet unwilted pod or husk. 

Summer vegetables when fresh do not require soaking 
in cold water, and it is better not to prepare them until you 
are ready to cook them. 

But if they come from city markets and are wilted, soak- 



VEGETABLES 175 

Ing will freshen them ; if they must be prepared long before 
cooking, cover them with cold water to prevent discoloring 
or wilting ; or scald them five minutes, cool quickly, and 
finish the cooking later. 

Cooking Vegetables. A simple way of cooking that 
softens the cellulose, breaks up the starch grains, develops 
the flavor and retains the potash salts, is the best for vege- 
tables. Use a covered stewpan and water freshly drawn, 
and use as soon as it boils. Do not use water from the 
teakettle. 

Cook vegetables gently but steadily until done, tender but 
not sodden. The time will depend upon the age, size, and 
freshness of the vegetable. When nearly done, add salt, 
one level tablespoon to one quart of water, if water is not 
to be used, one teaspoon for small vegetables cooked in a 
little water, and use none with sweet corn. 

Vegetables which may be cooked in the same general way 
are grouped under one recipe, with specific directions for 
selection and preparatory work. 

Seasoning. As vegetables have no fat, they need butter 
or cream, and a little salt to bring out flavor, — more can be 
added by those who wish it ; use pei)per sparingly ; such as 
have a large amount of cellulose like greens, cabbage and 
beets need acid (vinegar or lemon) to soften the fibre ; peas, 
beans, and squash are improved by a bit of sugar to restore 
that which nature gave them ; diced turnips, carrots, and 
onions may have white sauce, but not too often ; leeks, aspara- 
gus, stewed celery, and stewed cucumbers are served on toast 
generously buttered which absorbs the excess of moisture 
and should be eaten. 

One starchy vegetable like potatoes (or rice or macaroni, 
good substitutes when potatoes are poor) should form a 
part of one and often two meals each day. For dinner add 
one cooked, succulent vegetable like the fresh green vege- 
tables of summer, and one uncooked vegetable, eaten as a 
salad, though not necessarily as a separate course. By vary- 
ing the vegetable each day, instead of serving a great variety 
at each dinner, you need not repeat fdr a week and each day 
will bring fresh enjoyment of the mid-day meal. 



176 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Plan to cook only enough for one meal, for cooked vege- 
tables sour quickly even if unseasoned, and but few varieties 
are improved by warming over. Left-over portions should 
be used as a salad, or in some hot combination not later than 
the next day. 



Recipe, No. 95. Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Brussels 

Sprouts 

Avoid those with decayed leaves, brown blight, and insect 
holes. Remove outer leaves and stalks ; cut cabbage into 
quarters and remove core ; break cauliflower into flowerets ; 
soak in cold salted water to remove insects. Cook in 
boiling water, enough to cover; add one fourth teaspoon 
of soda, boil rapidly uncovered, — sprouts about fifteen, 
cauliflower twenty, and cabbage thirty minutes. If each 
leaf is immersed separately fifteen minutes will suffice. If 
covered while boiling the steam condenses on the cover 
holding the odor within and the water grows stronger as 
boiling continues and the odor escapes as the steam lifts 
up the cover. But if cooked uncovered the odor passes off 
at once with the steam and is soon dissipated in the air, 
and the water is much less strongly flavored. Season with 
salt, butter, and lemon or vinegar. 



Recipe, No. 96. Red Cabbage, Onions, Summer Carrots 

Red Cabbage J trim and shred ; 

Onions, trim, peel and slice ; 

Summer Carrots^ scrape, divide lengthwise in quarters, 
then across in thin slices. 

Cook as directed for string beans ; omit nutmeg, and use 
minced onion with the cabbage ; add one teaspoon vinegar 
five minutes before serving. To the carrots add one tea- 
spoon sugar and one tablespoon lemon juice, and to the 
onions two tablespoons milk or cream before serving. Keep 
them hot in the pan till needed. 



VEGETABLES 177 

Recipe, No. 97. String Beans 

Fresh, crisp, yellow or green beans. If wilted, soak half 
an hour in cold water, drain and dry. Snap off the ends, 
and shave off the strings if pulling does not remove them. 
Cut diagonally across the pod in narrow slivers and cover 
with cold water. Into a stew pan . with tight cover put 
one tablespoon butter, one fourth teaspoon salt, one eighth 
teaspoon nutmeg and same of pepper, for each pint of beans. 
Set pan over very low heat, mix as butter melts ; lift beans 
from the water into the pan, drain a bit and the water 
that clings to them will be sufficient. Cover tightly and 
cook very slowly about an hour, or until tender. Their 
own juices, with just heat enough to make steam, will 
cook them. But lift the cover occasionally, or listen and 
if they sizzle or are dry, add two or three tablespoons of 
water. When done remove the cover and boil down nearly 
dry ; turn out and serve with no further seasoning. 

Questions on Lessons XXII, XXIII, and XXIV 

What is boiling ? Prepare a suitable menu for 

What is the temperature of dinner and supper. 

boiling water? What effect has boiling upon 

Why does boiled water taste potatoes? cabbages? 

flat? How many classes of vege- 

tables are there ? 



LESSON XXV 
VEGETABLE SOUPS 

Soups are made from the water in which some vegetables 
have been boiled and thickened with the pulp of the vege- 
tables, mashed fine and sifted. Milk or cream is added to 
improve the flavor and make them more nutritious. The 
liquid and vegetable pulp should be blended with a little 
flour, or other starchy thickening, to keep them from sepa- 
rating. Celery, tomatoes, green peas, green corn, carrots, 
and parsnips may be used for soup in the same general way 
as the potatoes. They are valuable foods, enabling one to 
utilize the water and mineral salts in the vegetable. 

Such soups are named from the vegetable used. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR VEGETABLE SOUPS MADE 

WITHOUT STOCK 

Prepare the vegetable; cook potatoes, cauliflower or 
artichokes in boiling water and discard water ; cook others 
in cold water, let it cook nearly all out ; mash, press through 
sieve, add white sauce (one cup to each pint of pulp and 
water for most fresh green vegetables, also for canned vege- 
tables ; and one pint of sauce for each pint of pulp from 
spinach, tomatoes and other succulent vegetables). Season 
with salt and pepper; dilute with hot milk if too thick; 
add beaten eggy or more pulp if too thin. Serve with toasted 
crackers. 

Recipe, No. 98. White Sauce for Soups 4 

Melt two tablespoons butter in a saucepan; cook it in 
two tablespoons flour. Add gradually one cup hot milk 

178 



VEGETABLE SOUPS 179 

or cream. Season with one haK teaspoon salt and one fourth 
teaspoon white pepper. 

In making a white sauce, be careful to cook the flour in 
the hot butter, without browning them; but cook and stir 
until the mixture becomes slightly thinner. The high tem- 
perature of the butter changes the flour into dextrine, which, 
being soluble, may be diluted with the hot liquid and yet 
remain smooth. Add the liquid hot, that it may boil quickly 
and cause the cell walls to burst and the starch grains to 
swell; and add gradually that the sauce may be stirred, 
while it is like a thick paste, until it is smooth. If all the 
liquid be poured on at once, or the mixture be not stirred 
thoroughly while it is thick, the sauce will be lumpy. Enough 
liquid must be used to swell all the flour, and make the sauce 
of the desired consistency. The usual proportion is one table- 
spoon of fat and two tablespoons of flour to one cup of liquid ; 
and by varying these proportions, and using different liquids 
and seasonings, a great variety of gravies and sauces may be 
made with this general rule as the foundation. 

Cooking the flour in the hot butter or fat cooks it thor- 
oughly ; for the fat, when it stops bubbling, is much hotter 
than boiling water. When done in this way the flour never 
has a raw, uncooked taste, and the butter or fat is absorbed 
by the flour instead of floating on the surface of the sauce. 

Recipe, No. 99. Potato Soup 

3 potatoes. 1 tsp. salt. 

1 pt. of milk or haK milk and 1 spk. white pepper. 

half water. | tbsp. flour. 

1 tsp. chopped onion. i tbsp. dripping. 

Wash and pare the potatoes, put them into boiling water 
and cook till very soft. Cook the onion in the milk in a 
double boiler. When the potatoes are done, drain and 
mash them. Add the boiling milk and the seasoning. Rub 
them through a strainer, and put them back into the double 
boiler to boil again. Melt the dripping in a small pan, add 
the flour, and stir till it thickens. Stir it into the boiling 
soup. Let it boil five minutes. Add one teaspoon finely 



180 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

chopped parsley, and serve very hot, with croutons. If the 
soup be too thick add a little more hot milk or water. 



Recipe, No. 100. Baked Bean Soup 

Take cold baked beans, add twice the quantity of cold 
water, and let them simmer until soft. When nearly done i 
add half as much tomato. Rub them through a puree ^ 
strainer. Add more water till the right consistency, season 
to taste with salt, pepper, and mustard. Heat again and 
serve with toasted crackers or fried dice of bread. 



Recipe, No. 101. Cream of Chestnuts 

1 pt. chestnuts. h tsp. salt. 

1 pt. milk or white stock. i tsp. pepper. 

1 c. cream. 1 egg. 

Remove the shells from the chestnuts, then cover with 
boiling water, let them stand five minutes ; drain, and cover 
again with boiling water, and blanch them by removing the 
thin, brown skin. Cook them in boiling salted water to 
cover, until very soft. Mash them with a wooden potato 
masher, in the water left in the pan, and rub them through 
a fine strainer into the milk or stock and cream. 

Heat again and let it simmer ten minutes, add salt and 
pepper to taste, add a little sugar if you desire. Remove 
from the fire and stir in the beaten egg quickly and serve at 
once. If the soup be too thick add more hot milk, and if 
too thin, before adding the egg let it reduce by longer sim- 
mering. Serve with toasted or fried croutons. 



Recipe, No. 102. Cro^^tons 

Cut stale bread in half-inch slices. Remove the crusts 
and cut into half -inch cubes. Put them on a shallow pan 
and bake until brown. Use them in the place of toast, or as 
a garnish, or in soups and stews. 



VEGETABLE SOUPS 181 

Recipe, No. 103. Canned Corn Soup 

Empty the corn from a can and turn over it one quart 
of milk. Stir it well ; then turn into a colander to drain. 
Put the milk on to boil in the double boiler and turn the 
drained corn, which should be as dry as possible, into a pan 
in which you have melted two tablespoons of butter. Let 
the corn cook in the butter, stirring it frequently until it 
is dry and browned slightly ; season it highly with salt and 
pepper, and if it forms a glaze on the pan scrape it off and 
let as much of it glaze as will. This vnll give something 
of the roasted corn flavor. When well cooked turn it into 
the milk, taking all the browned part, and let it simmer 
until the milk is well flavored with the corn. Turn again 
into a strainer and press as much of the corn through as 
will go ; re-heat ; add more salt and pepper if needed ; stir in 
one cup of white sauce. 

Recipe, No. 104. Tomato Cream Soup 

1 pt. stewed tomatoes. 1 qt. milk. 

J tsp. soda. i c. butter. 

1 tsp. salt. 1 tbsp. corn-starch. 

J tsp. white pepper. 6 crisped crackers. 

Stew the tomatoes, add the soda, salt, and pepper, and 
rub through a strainer. Boil the milk in a large double 
boiler. Cook the corn-starch in one tablespoon of the butter 
in a small saucepan ; add gradually about one cup of the 
hot milk. Stir it carefully into the boiling milk and cook 
ten minutes. Cut the remainder of the butter into small 
pieces and stir into the milk. Add the tomatoes, and when 
hot and well mixed strain into the hot tureen. 

Recipe, No. 105. Browned Crackers 

I tsp. butter to each whole cracker. 

Split round crackers in halves, spread the inside with a 
thin layer of butter. Put them, buttered side up, into a 
pan and brown in a hot oven. Serve plain or with soups 
and oyster stews. 



LESSON XXVI 
MACARONI 

Macaroni is a nutritious and economical food and should 
be used more freely than it is. Much of the dislike for it 
arises from ignorance as to the proper mode of cooking. It 
is made from the choicest varieties of wheat, — a grain 
which contains all the substances needed for food, though 
not in the proper proportion. Wheat lacks water and fat. 
Macaroni, being only wheat flour and water made into a 
hard, dry paste, is not palatable unless cooked, till tender, 
iii plenty of water or other liquid, and seasoned well or 
combined with other foods, particularly some form of fat, 
as butter, milk, cheese, eggs, or meat broth. 

Macaroni is prepared in a variety of forms, — spaghetti, 
Italian paste of fanciful shapes, vermicelli, and round, tubu- 
lar, and flat macaroni. The paste, while soft, is rolled into 
sheets, and cut with fancy cutters, or it is forced through 
metallic plates which have perforations, sometimes in the 
form of small rings with the center of the hole filled. It is 
then dried thoroughly and will keep in a dry place a long 
time. 

Macaroni, as often served, is hard and dry, or moist and 
tasteless. On account of the uneven surface which the 
macaroni assumes in the serving dish and which hardens 
on the edges when in the hot oven, a sauce, either white 
or tomato, should be poured over it to fill the spaces. Then 
cover with buttered crumbs which in baking will make a 
crisp brown crust. 

Recipe, No. 106. Macaroni 

One half cup macaroni, measured after breaking into inch 
pieces. Cook in boiling salted water twenty minutes, 

182 



MACARONI 183 

or until tender. Drain, pour cold water through it, and serve 
plain, with hot white sauce or tomato sauce, or use it with 
meat, in scalloped meat. 

Or cover it with sauce, grated cheese, and buttered crumbs 
and bake until the crumbs are brown. 



Recipe, No. 107. Savory Macaroni 

Have ready a stewpan half full of rapidly boiling water, 
add one tablespoon of salt, one fourth teaspoon of mixed 
whole spice, and two slices of onion. 

Let it boil ten minutes, then remove the spice and onion, 
and add one cup of macaroni broken into inch bits. Let 
it cook until tender, then drain off the water, and add one 
fourth cup of butter, one cup of grated Parmesan cheese, 
and a dash of paprika. Pour over it one half cup of chicken 
stock and two tablespoons of thick cream, and after they 
have cooked five minutes turn out into a hot dish. 



LESSON XXVII 
DRIED PEAS AND BEANS 

The seeds of leguminous plants, such as peas and beans, 
contain a large proportion of protein in the form of vegetable 
casein. They are deficient in fat, but rich in mineral matter, 
and are used in the green, unripe state as a fresh vegetable, 
as shown in another lesson. 

The dried varieties of peas and beans are less digestible 
than the green on account of the cellulose in the hulls, and 
need long, slow cooking in water to render them suitable 
for food. 

Dried Beans are used in soups and bean porridge, and baked 
with pork. To make them more easily digested, put a small 
amount of bicarbonate of soda into the water in which they 
are parboiled ; then rinse and cook them in fresh water. 

Dried Peas are used for soups or purees ; the split peas 
are better than the whole, for the hull being removed they 
are more easily cooked and are more digestible. 

Recipe, No. 108. Split-pea Soup 

i c. dried split peas. J tsp. sugar. 

3 c. cold water. ^ tsp. salt. 

1 tbsp. butter. J tsp. white pepper. 

1 tbsp. flour. Milk to thin it. 

Pick over and wash the peas. Put them with the cold 
water on the back of the stove. Let them heat slowly, 
then simmer two hours or until soft. Rub them through 
a fine strainer, and put on to boil again. Add milk or water 
to make it like a thick soup. Cook the flour in the hot 

184 



DRIED PEAS AND BEANS 185 

butter and add it to the strained soup when boihng. Add 
the seasoning, and serve with croutons or crisped crackers. 
A small sHce of onion or one fourth of a sweet green pepper 
may be boiled with the peas. 

Recipe, No. 109. Baked Beans 

1 qt. pea beans. 1 tsp. mustard. 

I lb. salt pork, fat and lean. i c. molasses. 

1 tsp. salt. 

Pick over ; wash and soak the be'ans in cold water over 
night. In the morning put them into fresh cold water, and 
simmer till soft enough to pierce with a pin, being careful 
not to let them cook enough to break. When soft, stir in 
one fourth teaspoon bicarbonate of soda, turn them into a 
colander, and pour cold water through them. Place them 
with the onion in a bean-pot. Pour boiling water over the 
pork ; scrape the rind till white ; cut through the rind down 
one inch in half -inch strips ; bury the pork in the beans, 
leaving only the rind exposed. Mix the salt — use more 
if the pork is not very salt — and mustard with the molasses. 
Fill the cup with hot water, and when well mixed pour it 
over the beans; add enough more water to cover them. 
After two hours let the water cook nearly out ; this gives 
the fine flavor of browning of the fat. Add more water 
and again let it cook nearly out. The last hour, lift the 
pork to the surface and let it crisp, adding water frequently 
that it may cook down slightly below the beans when they 
are done. Bake eight hours in a moderate oven. Use 
more salt and one third cup butter if you dislike pork, or 
use one pound fat and lean corned beef. If liked richer, 
use one pound pork and put three slices in near the 
bottom. 



LESSON XXVIII 

AFTERNOON TEA 

A lesson in serving an afternoon tea may be given in the 
classroom if convenient. The menu should be simple as 
it is not intended to be a full meal. Sandwiches of thin bread 
and butter, plain or with some delicate filling, sweet wafers, 
or small cakes, and tea or chocolate are sufficient. 

Recipe, No. 110. Tea 

Use water freshly boiled. Scald the teapot (earthen, 
granite, or china) ; for mild infusions allow one half teaspoon 
level for each cup ; if strong tea is desired allow one teaspoon. 
Put the tea in the hot teapot and pour boiling water on the 
tea ; cover closely, and let it stand and infuse, not boil, for 
five minutes. If you have a table teakettle, put the tea in a 
tea-ball; fill two cups at a time with boiling water, and 
hold the ball in the water until the desired strength is secured. 
At afternoon teas and for iced tea, serve slices of lemon. 

Recipe, No. HI. Iced Tea 

Allow one tablespoon of tea for one quart of water, unless 
you are using some of the choice varieties which do not 
require so large a proportion. Scald the teapot and have 
the water just brought to the boiling point. Pour it over 
the tea and let it stand and steep, but not boil for ten minutes, 
where it will keep almost at the boiling point. Strain it, 
add the juice of one lemon and one cup of sugar. Keep it 
chilled until ready to serve. Half fill tall, slender glasses 
with chipped ice and fill with the tea. Add sliced lemon 

186 



AFTERNOON TEA 187 

and sugar as desired, and vary by adding a few cloves stuck 
in the lemon slices, or by a bit of preserved ginger. 

Recipe, No. 112. Reception Chocolate 

2 qts. milk. 1 pt. cream. 

1 lb. cocoa powder. 2 eggs. 

6 tbsp. white sugar. 3 tsp. vanilla extract. 

Bring milk to boil, work the cocoa in a little of the cold 
milk, then stir into the boiling milk till smooth. Boil ten 
minutes, add the sugar and cream, and stir well while boil- 
ing. Turn into a double boiler and keep the water in lower 
boiler almost at boiling point for half an hour. Then beat 
the eggs very light, add them and remove immediately from 
the fire. When cool add the flavoring. 

This can be made in the morning, and when ready to serve, 
put from one to two tablespoons of the preparation into the 
cup and fill with boiling water. 

By cooking the cocoa we have a much more delicious flavor 
than that obtained by pouring boiling water directly upon 
the raw cocoa in the cup. The eggs and cream give body 
and richness. It will serve from sixty to eighty people. 

Recipe, No. 113. Chocolate for Afternoon Teas 

Boil one and one half pounds of grated chocolate in two 
quarts of water with one pound of sugar until thick and 
smooth. Then add two quarts of rich milk heated in double 
boiler, and keep it hot over boiling water until ready to serve. 
Add thick whipped cream to each cup when serving. 

Recipe, No. 114. Fruit Punch 

Make a lemonade by boiling one quart of water and one 
pint of sugar for ten minutes, and steep in it the shaved yellow 
rind of half a lemon. Add the juice of two lemons, strain 
and cool. Add one pint of strained strawberry juice, one 
cup of cold tea, one pint of Apollinaris water if you choose, 
and more sugar if needed. Or, use any mixture of fruit juices 
you prefer ; dilute with ice, and serve bits of fruit in the glass* 



]M 



LESSON XXIX 
CORN 

Field Corn has many varieties and colors, but white and 
yellow are the most common. These are used in many 
forms after they are fully ripe and dry. 

Hulling. The first step in the preparation is the removal 
of the hull. In the '^ new process '' the corn is kiln-dried, 
which makes the hull separate easily from the grain. The 
hull and germ are loosened by machinery and then removed 
by bolting ; the remaining part of the grain is then prepared 
in several ways, and is known by the following names : 

Samp, the whole grains. 

Hominy, broken grains, coarse and fine. 

Meal, ground coarse, like sugar, granulated meal, 

ground fine, bolted meal, 

ground like powder, corn flour. 

Corn Starch, the starch separated from the other part of the 
grain. Corn starch is sometimes called corn flour, but it is 
prepared by a different process, the starch being entirely 
separated from the other parts of the grain and it is practically 
pure starch. 

The flavor of corn starch is disliked by many persons ; 
probably in some brands of it the separation has not been 
complete and some of the other substances were removed 
with the starch. It should be thoroughly cooked at high 
temperature, and is best when used as a thickening for 
sauces, soups, and pudding sauces. When used as a sub- 
stitute for eggs in custard and other milk desserts, it 
should be cooked thoroughly in the milk before adding the 
eggs. 

188 



CORN 189 

Corn Meal is used as a mush and gruel, in a great variety 
of hot cakes and muffins, in combination with rye meal and 
Graham flour in brown bread, and in puddings. 

Corn has a large amount of starch and but little protein, 
but what it lacks in protein it makes up in fat, and when 
combined with milk, or cheese, or eggs, as it usually is, it 
may well be considered a hearty food. The yellow and the 
white corn meal are about equal in nutritive value, but the 
flavor of the white is considered the more delicate. 

The protein of corn is not like the gluten in wheat, for it 
lacks the elastic, tenacious quality and the meal cannot be 
made into a bread of the light, dry, porous texture of wheat 
bread. But combined with wheat and rye in brown bread, 
or with wheat in small cakes and muffins, it is very palatable. 

The old process of grinding corn meal is still used in the 
South and in Rhode Island. The whole grain is ground 
between stones and generally sifted only by the user. It 
is known as ^^ water ground ^^ or ^^ wind-mill ground.'^ 
Owing to the fat in the germ, the moisture in the grain 
and the heat of the stones in grinding, the meal soon 
becomes musty and should be bought in small quantities. 
The flavor is different from that made by the new process. 
The latter being drier, needs more water in cooking, and 
also more shortening, as the fat was removed in the germ. 

Hulled Corn. This primitive method of preparing corn 
is still in use and should be better known, for hulled corn 
has a flavor quite unlike that of any other and may be used 
in a variety of ways. 

The process is long, but one may generally buy it all ready 
for the table. The corn is steeped in hot water and lye ; 
when the hulls are loosened and eyes or germs are out, it is 
soaked in several waters till the lye is washed out and then 
boiled until soft. Enough of the lye remains to give it an 
agreeable flavor. 

Pop Corn. This is a small variety of field corn with very 
hard pointed kernels. When dry and heated over bright 
coals, the moisture in the starch cells expands, the air in 
the grain also expands, and together there is sufficient force 
to cause an explosion of the hard cell walls ; the kernel 



190 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

turns completely inside out, enveloping the embryo and 
skin with the swollen starch. 

Pop corn is best when crisp and freshly popped ; it is 
eaten with salt and butter, or made into corn balls with 
syrup. It is generally eaten between meals, and as a tidbit 
at evening treats ; but it might better have a place as a 
part of the regular meal ; with cream or milk as a breakfast 
food, as a cream soup for luncheon, and the corn balls for 
dessert. 

SUGAR 

Sugar is a valuable food stuff, as it gives heat and energy 
in a form pleasing to the taste, and being soluble, it is easily 
digested. Only a small portion of plain sugar is needed in 
the body, for many foods contain it and starchy foods are 
changed into sugar during digestion. 

The greater part of the sugar used in cooking is made from 
the sugar cane and sugar beet, and we buy it as block or cube 
sugar, granulated, powdered or confectioner's sugar, and 
brown sugar. Sugar is used in mixtures such as custards, 
cake, pudding, preserves, beverages, and on a large scale in 
making candy. 

Recipe, No. 115. Caramel 

Melt one cup of sugar (either brown or white) with one 
tablespoon of water in a frying-pan. Stir until it becomes 
of a dark brown color. Add one cup of boiling water; 
simmer ten minutes, and bottle when cool. This should 
always be kept on hand, as it is useful for many purposes. 
It gives a rich, dark color to soups, coffee, and jelly; is 
more wholesome than browned butter in sauces, and is 
delicious as a flavoring in custards and pudding sauces. 



Recipe, No. 116. Caramel Custard 

Melt one cup of granulated sugar in an iron pan over a 
hot fire. Stir to prevent scorching, and when it is well 
browned take out about half of it and stir it into one quart 



SUGAH 191 

of milk, which should be heating over boiling water. It 
may harden in the milk, but that will do no harm as it will 
soon melt. To the remainder of the browned sugar add one 
half cup of water and let it simmer ten minutes, then set 
away to cool. Beat six eggs slightly, stir in one half teaspoon 
of salt, one teaspoon of vanilla and a few drops of extract of 
almond. Add part of the hot milk and when well mixed 
strain it into the remainder. Grease several small tin moulds 
or cups with a slight coating of olive oil or strained butter, 
fill with the custard and set them into a shallow pan of hot 
water. Bake in a moderate oven until the custard is firm; 
when a thin knife is inserted to the bottom and comes out 
with no trace of milk on it the custard is done. Put away in 
a cold place, and when ready to serve turn them out care- 
fully on to individual dishes ; pour some of the caramel over 
and put a little whipped cream around the edge. 

Recipe, No. 117. Panocha 

Put three cups of dark brown or maple sugar in a clean 
saucepan, or the chafing-dish, add one cup rich creamy 
milk, and boil till it forms a soft ball when dropped in cold 
water. Add one teaspoon vanilla and beat vigorously as 
it cools and thickens. Stir in one or two cups of broken 
English walnuts or pecans. Turn into buttered pans to cool. 

Recipe, No. 118. Fruit and Nut Paste 

Take equal parts of best raisins, dates and figs and half as 
much nuts, or one cup each of the three fruits and one and 
one half cups of nuts, measured after preparing. Remove 
the seeds from the raisins, the stones and scales from the 
dates, the stems from the figs, and the shells from the nuts ; 
the brown skin also if almonds or peanuts are used. One 
variety or a mixture of nuts may be used. The nuts should 
be ground through the fine blade of the meat chopper and 
then rubbed with a pestle to a paste ; the raisins and dates 
also should be minced fine, and if you want it especially nice 
you may rub the figs through a sieve fine enough to keep 



192 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

back the seeds. Mix all very thoroughly, then turn it on a 
board in a bed of confectioner's sugar, and knead it until 
firm enough to roll out. Roll part of it one half inch thick 
and cut in half-inch cubes with a sharp knife, and part of it 
one fourth inch thick, and cut in rounds with the smallest 
pattie cutter. Dip the roller and the cutter in the sugar to 
prevent the paste from sticking. Roll the cubes and discs 
in the sugar until well covered, then put away in a cool place, 
with confectioner's paper between the layers. These will 
keep some time in air-tight tin boxes. 



PAET II 



LESSON I 

BAKING POWDER BISCUIT AND 
VARIATIONS 

Put into a sieve over a mixing bowl, two cups sifted pastry 
flour, one teaspoon salt and four teaspoons baking powder. 
Mix thoroughly and sift. Rub or chop in two tablespoons 
cold butter, or one of butter and one of lard, till fine and 
mealy. Wet with about one cup milk into a stiff dough. 

The amount of milk required will vary with different kinds 
of flour, and in dividing or doubling the rule, the milk cannot 
always be proportioned exactly. When the shortening is 
soft and seems to moisten the dough, the flour will take up 
less milk than when the shortening makes a mealy mixture. 
Bread flour will take more than pastry flour. 

Toss about on a well floured board, knead it gently, but 
effectually, until it is smooth and will not stick. 

Use plenty of flour to prevent sticking, but do not knead 
flour into the dough. There is a knack about it which comes 
by practice. Roll or pat it very gently with the rolling pin, 
until half an inch thick, less rather than more. Use a cutter 
two inches in diameter, — use a four inch cutter for short 
cake, — place close together in a baking pan. Cut eco- 
nomically, that there may be but few trimmings. Let them 
stand in the pan at least ten minutes before baking ; then 
bake in a hot, but not too hot, oven, about ten minutes. 
When done, brush over with a little melted butter. 

Now because these biscuits are not two or three inches 
high when they are done, do not think they are not light or 
right. Remember the biscuits were thin when cut, and if 

193 



194 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

they have doubled in height that is sufBcient; they are 
more wholesome when they spHt into two thin crusts, than 
when so thick that there is an excess of the softer inside por- 
tion, which, while it may be pleasing to some palates, is 
less digestible than the crusts. 

Cream of tartar is only slightly soluble in cold water, and 
the gas is not all liberated from the bicarbonate of soda 
until heat is applied, therefore it does no harm for a dough 
made with a cream of tartar baking powder to stand a while. 



Recipe, No. 119. Short Cake 

Make a dough after the recipe for baking powder biscuit. 
Bake, split or tear open, spread with softened butter, put 
together again, and serve at once. Have strawberries mashed 
and sweetened, and as you serve the cakes lay them open 
and cover generously with the fruit. In this way the cakes 
are not made heavy by long soaking, and if all are not needed, 
the fruit will keep better apart. 

For dessert, use stewed apple sauce, baked bananas, 
stewed prunes, or canned blackberries to give variety. 
Biscuits made in this way are often served as a garnish for 
Chicken Fricassee, or Creamed Oysters, in place of toast. 



LESSON II 
BROILING 

Broiling, from bruler, meaning ^^ to burn," is cooking 
directly over the hot coals. It is the hottest form of cook- 
ing. The heat is so intense that the food would be burned 
quickly if allowed to remain continuously over the fire or 
under the gas flame. Burning is avoided by turning the 
meat frequently. This rapid cooking by direct, intense 
heat, combined with the action of the air, which has free 
access to the meat, gives a flavor quite unlike that obtained 
by cooking meat in water. 

Only certain kinds of meat are suitable for broiling. A 
pound of beef cut in cubical form could not be cooked inside 
sufficiently without burning the outside. But the same 
weight of beef, when cut in the form of a slice about an inch 
thick, can be broiled perfectly, and has a better flavor than 
when cooked in any other way. 

Meat for broiling should have tender fibres, much juice, 
and but little fat, bone, or gristle. There is neither time 
nor moisture to soften tough fibres, and slow, long-continued 
heat is necessary to cook tough meat. If there be much 
fat it will melt, drip into the fire, and smoke the meat. 
Slices cut from an inch to an inch and a half in 
thickness, and taken from the thick part of the round, 
the rump, and the sirloin, are the best for broiling. The 
tender parts of mutton, small chickens, some kinds of game 
and birds, tripe and liver, thin slices of ham and bacon, any 
small, thin fish, and oysters are also cooked by broiling. 
Veal and pork need to be cooked too thoroughly for this 
process to be done successfully. 

The fire for broiling should be bright-red, but not blazing, 

195 



LJ 



196 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

and should be near the top of the fire-box. It should be 
made ready some time before it is needed that it may be in 
the proper condition at the last moment. There should be 
little or no flame, as that will smoke the meat. The oven 
damper should always be open during the broiling, that the 
smoke of the dripping fat, and the poisonous gases may be 
carried into the chimney. A bed of hard-wood coals is the 
best fire for broiling. Next to this is a charcoal fire. Wood 
gives an entirely different and better flavor to steak from 
that obtained by a coal fire. Some stoves for burning wood 
have a hearth in front into which the bright coals may be 
drawn for the cooking of the steak. 

A double wire broiler is the best utensil for broiling. Grease 
it with a bit of fat from the meat or with salt pork. Place 
the thickest part of whatever is to be cooked next to the 
middle of the broiler. If there is a fat edge on the steak, 
place this uppermost. Then, as the fat melts, it drips down 
over the meat, and by thus basting keeps it from becoming 
too dry. Hold the broiler slanting down into the fire, and 
if there is a blaze do not lift the broiler up into the smoke, 
but keep it in the flame, turning it often. Use a coarse towel 
to protect the hand if the heat be very great. 

In every form of cooking meat, where the meat is to be 
eaten, the juices should be retained in the meat ; this is 
especially important in broiling, for if not retained in the 
meat they drip into the fire. Do not salt the meat, as salt 
draws out the juices. Remove the bone and part of the fat. 
Place the meat close to the fire. The intense heat instantly 
sears the albumin and fibrin on that side and starts the 
fiow of the juices; as they become hot they rise and if 
the meat be cooked long on one side they will force their 
way through the fibres, and form little pools on the surface 
of the meat, which run off and drip into the fire, and so feed 
the fire with the best part of the meat. But by turning the 
meat before the juices ooze out, the other surface is brought 
next to the fire and seared, and the juices cannot escape in 
that direction, so they rise again and try to get through the 
top. But that being already hardened they have to stay 
inside the meat. As the water of the juices is converted into 



BROILING 197 

steam by the heat, it expands and puffs the meat. If the 
meat be not turned often, or the broiHng be carried on too 
long, these watery juices will gradually ooze between the 
fibres to the surface and be evaporated, leaving the meat 
dry, leathery, and not easily digested. 

Meat should be broiled only long enough to loosen all the 
fibres and start the flow of the juices. As long as there is 
juice inside, the steam will cause the meat to spring up in- 
stantly when pressed with a knife, and when it ceases to do 
this the juices have begun to evaporate, and the meat shrinks. 
Meat when broiled properly should be pink and juicy, not raw 
and purple, nor brown and dry. It should be so full of juice 
that when cut on the platter no other gravy will be required 
than its own hot savory juices. 

Broiled food should be served very hot. All other dishe^^ 
should be prepared first, the platter hot and the seasoning 
ready. Have a long shallow pan near to hold under the 
broiler when it is removed from the fire, and thus avoid 
dropping the grease on the floor. When everything else is 
ready, begin to broil, and do not leave the broiler an instant 
until the meat is cooked. Turn the broiler over every ten 
seconds, counting as the clock ticks, and always keep the 
broiler over the fire while turning, and not off over the stove 
or floor. If there be much fat, lift the broiler over the pan 
while turning, and let the fat drip into the pan. The burn- 
ing fat will not smoke the meat if the meat be kept close to 
the coals, but if held on the top of the flame it will soon be 
smoked. After the flrst thorough searing hold the broiler 
farther from the flre. When the meat is done, rest the 
broiler on the pan; take the meat off carefully, without 
sticking the fork into it, and put it on the hot platter. Season 
with salt and, if desired, with butter and pepper, but do 
not destroy the flne flavor of the meat by too much sea- 
soning. Wipe the edge of the platter before sending it to 
the table. 

BROILING WITH GAS 

Place large steaks on the broiler, close to the full blaze, 
and when slightly seared turn the meat over; when that 



198 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

side IS brown, reduce the heat and let it cook without turn- 
ing again until nearly done as the heat from the oven cooks 
the under side. The fat drips into the pan and will burn 
and blaze if the heat be too great. If not burned it should 
be poured over the steak ; but the fat from lamb chops 
should be used as dripping. 

Do not use the broiler of the range for a small piece of 
meat. Save the fat and the labor of cleaning the pan by 
using a small wire rack on a granite plate. The time of 
cooking depends upon the thickness of the meat, varying 
from eight to fifteen minutes. 

Recipe, No. 120. Broiled Steak 

Wipe, trim off the superfluous fat, and remove the bone. 
Grease the broiler with some of the fat. Broil over a clear 
fire, turning every ten seconds. Cook three or four minutes 
if liked rare ; longer, if well done. Serve on a hot platter ; 
season with salt and butter. 

Recipe, No. 121. Broiled Meat Cakes 

Chop tough, raw, lean beef quite fine. Season with salt, 
pepper, and a few drops of onion juice. Make it into small 
flat cakes and broil on a hot frying-pan. Spread with a 
little butter and serve very hot. 

Recipe, No. 122. Hamburger Steak 

Proceed as for Meat Cakes, using onions which have been 
sliced and cooked in dripping until slightly colored; drain 
and put them in the inside when you shape the meat into 
cakes. 



LESSON III 
PAN BROILING 

It is sometimes inconvenient to broil over the coals, 
and nearly the same effect may be obtained by cooking 
in a dry, hissing-hot frying-pan. Heat the pan to a blue 
heat, and with a perfectly smooth pan no greasing is neces- 
sary. Sear the meat quickly on one side, then turn with a 
broad knife and fork, — without cutting into the meat, — 
and brown the other side, before any juice escapes into the 
pan. Cook from four to eight minutes, turning twice, and 
add a sprinkling of salt just before the last turning. 

Chops have a better flavor broiled in this way than when 
broiled over coals, as the fat may be cooked till crisp, with- 
out becoming smoked, and the lean meat will not be over- 
cooked. 

If the pan be hot enough and no fat used (and it seems 
difficult to convince some people that none need be used), 
this is not frying ; it is broiling on hot iron or pan broiling ; 
and the flavor and texture are very different from those of 
sauted meat. If there be much fat on the meat it should 
be drained off as it melts. 

The smaller and thinner the article to be cooked, the 
hotter should be the fire. 

The larger the article, the more temperate the fire, or the 
greater the distance from the fire. 

Meat of close, compact fibre takes longer to soften and 
start the flow of the juices, than meat of tender fibre. 

Recipe, No. 123. Mutton Chop (Pan Broiled) 

Wipe, remove the pink skin and extra fat. Have a fry- 
ing-pan hissing hot, without any fat ; put in the chops and 

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200 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cook one minute, turn and sear the other side; then cook 
more slowly until done, — five minutes, if liked rare. Stand 
them up on the fat edge to brown the fat, without over- 
cooking the meat. When nearly done sprinkle a little salt 
on each side. Drain on paper and serve very hot, on a hot 
dish, without a drop of grease. 



Recipe, No. 124. Broiled Fish 

To broil mackerel, white-fish, small blue-fish, trout, small 
cod, shad, or any other thin fish, split them down the 
back and remove the head and tail. Sometimes it is 
well to remove the backbone also. 

To broil halibut, salmon, and other thick fish, cut them 
into inch-slices across the backbone, and remove the skin 
and bone. Cut flounder, bass, and chicken halibut into 
fillets, or the natural divisions each side of the bone. Oily 
fish need only salt and pepper, but dry white-fish should be 
spread with soft butter before broiling. 

Grease a double wire broiler with salt pork rind. Put 
the thickest edge of the fish next the middle of the broiler; 
broil the flesh side first. Lift it frequently for a moment 
that it may not burn, but do not turn it over until the flesh 
is brown and done. Cook the other side just enough to 
crisp the skin. The time will vary with the thickness of the 
fish. 

The flesh, when done, should look white and firm, and 
should separate easily from the bone. Loosen the fish 
from each side of the broiler, open the broiler and slide off 
the fish, or hold a platter over the skin side of the fish, and 
invert platter and broiler together. Season with butter, 
salt and pepper, and lemon juice, if liked. 

Some acid condiment adds to the flavor of the fish. 



TIME-TABLE FOR BROILING 

Small, thin fish 5 to 8 m. 

Thick fish 12 to 15 m. 



PAN BROILING 



201 



Questions on Lessons I, II, and III 



What is the meaning of 
"broil"? 

How does the degree of heat in 
broiling compare with other 
forms of cooking ? 

How do we avoid burning food 
when broiling it ? 

How should meat be cut, and 
what kinds of meat are suit- 
able for broihng ? 

What kind of a fire is needed 
in broiling? 

Why should the oven damper be 
open during broiling ? 

Why do we grease the grid- 
iron? 



How do you place the meat in 

the broiler? 
Do we hold the meat over the 

flame or in the flame near the 

coals ? 
Why not cook the meat wholly 

on one side before turning it ? 
How do we broil with gas ? 
Should the fat from meat be 

used? 
How would you broil a small 

piece of meat ? 
How would you make tough 

meat suitable for broiling? 
What is pan broiling? 
How would you cook the fat of 

chops ? 



LESSON IV 
COOKING MEAT IN WATER 

The fibrin of meat is hardened and contracted by dry, 
intense heat, but softened by moist, moderate, and long- 
continued heat. Albumin dissolves in cold water, but hard- 
ens in hot water and by dry heat. Therefore all meat that 
has a tough, hard, or flabby fibre, with much gristle, tendon, 
and bone, should be cooked in water, and at a moderate heat. 

We cook meat in water for three distinct purposes : 

First, to keep the nutriment within the meat, as in boiled 
meat, and some forms of baked meat. 

Second, to draw nutriment out into the water, as in 
soups and meat broths. 

Third, to have the nutriment partly in the meat and partly 
in the water, as in stews, where we eat the broth with the 
meat. 

BOILED MEAT 

In boiling meat we leave the meat whole that only a 
small surface may be exposed. Plunge it into boiling salted 
water, enough to cover, and keep it there for five or ten 
minutes. This hardens the albumin over the entire surface 
and makes a coating through which the juices cannot escape. 
Then move the kettle where the water will be just below 
the boiling-point. Cover tightly to keep in the steam and 
the volatile, aromatic extractives which give fiavor to the 
meat. A small amount of albumin from the outer surface 
will be dissolved and rise as scum. This should be removed, 
or it will settle on the meat and render it uninviting in ap- 
pearance. The salt coagulates this albumin and helps it 
to rise. It also slightly raises the boiling-point of the water, 
and by increasing its density aids in preventing the escape 
of the juices. 

202 



COOKING MEAT IN WATER 



203 



Meat cooked in this slow gentle way requires a longer 
time than when the water boils furiously, but it is made 
more tender, and has a better flavor. It will take fifteen or 
twenty minutes for the heat to penetrate to the center of 
the meat before the cooking process begins. Then allow 
twelve or fifteen minutes for each pound of meat. Two 
pounds in a cubical form will require a longer time than the 
same weight cut thin and having a broad surface. 

As meat varies, according to its age and feeding, in the 
tenderness of its fibre and the amount of connective tissue, 
gristle, and tendon, it is safer to allow at least an hour for 
the boiling or stewing of any kind, whatever the shape or 
weight; then increase the time from two to five hours as 
per the time-table. 

Notwithstanding the pains we take to keep the nutriment 
in the meat, some portion of it escapes into the water, and 
therefore the water should be saved and used for a gravy, 
or in warming over the meat. 

Recipe, No. 125. Boiled Mutton 

Wipe, remove the fat, and put the meat into well-salted 
boiling water. Boil ten minutes. Skim and simmer at 
least an hour, or until tender. One quarter of a cup of rice 
is sometimes boiled with the mutton. Serve with thickened 
gravy or parsley sauce poured over the mutton. 



Recipe, No. 126. Gravy for Mutton 

To each cup of boihng water in which the mutton was 
cooked add one tablespoon of flour moistened with a little 
cold water, one teaspoon vinegar, speck of pepper, and one 
eighth teaspoon salt. Boil five minutes, stirring till smooth. 
Add one tablespoon fine chopped parsley, or capers if 
desired. 

Recipe, No. 127. Boiled Dinner 



4 lbs. corned beef. 
2 beets. 

1 small cabbage. 

2 small carrots. 



1 small French turnip, 
6 potatoes. 

1 small squash. 

2 small parsnips. 



204 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Wash the meat quickly in cold water and, if very salt, 
soak it one half hour. Put it in the kettle, cover with boil- 
ing water, and simmer three to five hours, or until tender. 
Wash the vegetables, scrape the carrots and parsnips, and 
cut the cabbage into quarters ; pare the turnip and squash, 
cut into three quarter inch slices, and pare the potatoes. 
Two hours before dinner-time skim off all the fat from the 
liquid and add more boiling water. Remove the meat 
when tender, then put in the carrots, afterward the cabbage 
and turnip, and one half hour before dinner add the squash, 
parsnips, and potatoes. Cook the beets separately. When 
tender take the vegetables up carefully, drain the water 
from the cabbage by pressing it in a colander, slice the 
carrots and beets, and cover the beets with vinegar. Put 
the meat in the center of a large dish, and serve the carrots, 
turnips, and potatoes round the edge, with the squash, 
cabbage, parsnips, and beets in separate dishes. 

Recipe, No. 128. General Directions for Boiled Meat 

Large pieces. Wipe and trim ; immerse in boiling water 
to keep juices inside. Skim to improve appearance; add 
salt to improve flavor. Cook slowly, with a slight bubbling 
on one side, to make fibre tender ; rapid boiling washes out 
connective tissue. Time depends on cubical size; a four 
pound cube takes more time than the same weight if long 
and thin. Cook till meat leaves the bone. For corned 
beef and tongue only slightly salted, use boiling water; if 
more than three days in the brine, use cold water and heat 
slowly, or soak for an hour in cold water and then put into 
boiling water. For ham, soak over night in cold water, 
put into fresh cold water in large kettle, and cook gently 
till skin will peel. Salt meat should be kept covered with 
water, but fresh meat and chickens may have little or much, 
as preferred. When only a little is used the process is a kind 
of steaming. 



LESSON V 
LEFT OVERS 

To be able to prepare attractive dishes from the odds and 
ends that are left over is not only desirable, but should be 
regarded as a duty; for it is wrong to waste food, even if 
we have abundant means. By waste we do not mean such 
remnants of food as are given away or fed to animals, but 
all good food which is thrown into the refuse barrel or the 
fire, because there is so little of it. 

With care not a scrap of food need be wasted. Because 
there is not enough for an entire meal, or for every member 
of the family, is no reason for throwing it away. By combin- 
ing small portions of different foods that will blend agreeably, 
a large dish may be prepared. 

Such pieces of meat as have been cooked until they are 
tender, only need to be looked over carefully and the bones, 
skin, and gristle removed with some of the fat before chopping 
them. But meat which you may have occasion to use at 
home, such as the tough ends of steak and chops, and the 
harder and poorer parts of roast meat, should be cooked slowly 
in just water enough to cover until they are tender. They 
may then be cut fine and used in any of the following Y\^ays. 

The secret of warming over meat is to warm quickly such 
parts as are already tender, and to make tender by long, 
slow cookiug such as are hard or tough. Care in remo\ing 
all objectionable portions and a judicious use of seasoning 
materials are also necessary. 

The chief objection to hash is the presence of small bones, 
hard gristle, and skin, in the mixture; or the greasy, half- 
browned, soggy condition in which it is served. But when 
carefully prepared it is a savory and palatable dish. It is 
not necessary to have corned beef for making hash, as many 

205 



206 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

suppose. Fresh beef, if made tender by stewing and season- 
ing properly, is more wholesome. Hash may be varied by 
making it into round, flat cakes and browning each side, or 
by using warm boiled rice instead of potato, with such 
seasoning as may be desired. 

Other easy and attractive ways of serving nearly every 
kind of cooked meat or fish are cottage-pie and scalloped 
meat. The latter admits of a great variety of combinations, 
care being taken to use such foods as are palatable when 
combined. Potatoes are best with beef or fi.sh. Rice, mac- 
aroni, oysters, and bread crumbs may be used with mutton, 
veal, or chicken. Onions and tomatoes improve many kinds 
of meat. White sauces are best for fish and light meats; 
brown gravies are best for dark meats ; and tomato or some 
acid sauce blends well with most combinations. 

All the bones and scraps of gristle and fat that are not 
used in the made-over dishes should be covered with cold 
water and simmered until the bones are clean and the gristle 
dissolved. Then strain the water; throw the scraps away, 
and when the liquid is cool, remove the fat and clarify it for 
dripping ; use the water for gravies with warmed-over meat, 
or combine it with some vegetable pulp and use it for soups. 

Recipe, No. 129. Hash 

One cup tender cooked meat chopped fine, two cups hot 
mashed potato, one half teaspoon salt, one fourth teaspoon 
pepper. Mix until there are no lumps. 

Put two or three tablespoons of hot water into a spider. 
Melt in one tablespoon of butter or dripping. Put in the 
hash, and let it simmer slowly till it has absorbed the water 
and formed a brown crust. Do not stir it. Fold over and 
turn out on a hot platter. 

Recipe, No. 130. Minced Meat on Toast 

Remove the fat and gristle and chop the meat fine. To 
one cup of meat, add one half teaspoon of salt, a speck of 
pepper, and one half cup thickened gravy. Heat quickly 
in a saucepan and pour over slices of toast. Serve hot. 



LEFT OVERS 207 

Recipe, No. 131. Cottage Pie 

Chop, cold meat fine. Boil and mash some potatoes. To 
every cup of meat add one half teaspoon salt, one fourth 
teaspoon pepper, a speck nutmeg, and one half cup of 
gravy or stock. Put the meat, seasoning, and gravy into a 
pie dish; cover it with mashed potato and bake in the oven 
till golden brown. Omit the nutmeg and add one teaspoon 
of finely chopped onion if liked. 



Recipe, No. 132. Tomato Sauce 

Melt two tablespoons butter, in a saucepan ; cook in it 
two tablespoons fine chopped onion until yellow, add two 
tablespoons flour, stirring well. Add, gradually, one cup 
mutton liquor, and one half cup strained tomato. Season 
with one half teaspoon salt and one fourth teaspoon pepper. 



Recipe, No. 133. Brown Sauce or Gravy, for Warm- 
ing OVER Meat 

In nearly every case one can have stock to use in making 
this gravy, for should there be none of the usual stock made 
expressly for soups, one can stew the bones and trimmings of 
meat in water to cover, till the richness is all extracted, and 
then strain out the scraps and use the liquor. Water in 
which the best portions of meat have been stewed makes a 
good stock for this purpose. 

Brown one tablespoon of dripping in the frying pan and 
cook in it one tablespoon of minced onion, if you like. Stir 
in two tablespoons of flour and add gradually one cup of the 
stock or meat liquor. Add salt and pepper to taste (about 
one half teaspoon of salt and one fourth teaspoon of pepper) ; 
the amount will depend upon how much the meat was sea- 
soned in the first cooking. Season also with lemon juice, 
Worcestershire sauce, cayenne, chopped parsley or pickles 
according to the kind of meat. Mix with this any platter 
or made gravy that may be left over. 



208 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 134. Lyonnaise Potatoes 

1 pt. cold boiled potatoes. 1 tbsp. minced onion. 

^ tsp. salt. 1 tbsp. dripping. 

J tsp. pepper. 1 tbsp. chopped parsley. 

Cut the potatoes into half-inch dice and season with salt 
and pepper. Fry the onion in the hot dripping until light 
brown ; add the potatoes : stir with a fork till they have 
absorbed the fat. Sprinkle the parsley over and serve hot. 
One teaspoon of vinegar improves the flavor. 

Recipe, No. 135. Creamed Potatoes 

1 pt. cold potatoes. 1 tbsp. butter. 

i c. milk. ^ tsp. salt. 

spk. pepper. 1 tsp. chopped parsley. 

Cut the potatoes into dice or thin slices. Put the milk 
into a shallow pan, and when hot add the potatoes and cook 
until they have absorbed nearly all the milk. Add the butter 
and seasoning, cook five minutes longer, and serve hot. 

Recipe, No. 136. Scalloped Meat, Fish, and Oysters 

1 c. sauce ; 1 c. cracker crumbs moistened m J c. melted 
butter; 2 c. meat or fish mixture. 

Line the deep baking dish with one fourth of the crumbs, 
add a layer of mixture, a layer of sauce, another fourth of 
crumbs and a layer of each and cover with the remaining 
half of the crumbs. Bake until crumbs are brown. 

In this, as in all warmed-over dishes of meat or fish, dis- 
card anything inedible, and cut meat into half -inch bits ; 
if very tough, stew it first, for the oven cooking will not always 
make it tender. 

Oysters may be used alone with their juice and the crumbs. 

The following combinations are appetizing : 

Mutton : oysters, macaroni, and white or brown sauce. 

Chicken: rice, oysters or celery and white sauce. 

Beef: onions, diced potatoes, and brown gravy or sauce. 



LEFT OVERS 



209 



Veal: stuffing, rice, turnip and tomato sauce. 
Ham : mustard, hard eggs, and white sauce. 
Fish: onions, pickles, and tomato sauce. 
Oysters : celery, bacon and white sauce. 



Questions on Lessons IV and V 



What are our three objects in 

cooking meat ? 
How may meat be cooked in 

water ? 
What kind of a piece of meat 

would be best to boil ? 
Why do we keep it whole ? 
Why use boiling water? 
What is the advantage in slow 

cooking ? 
What use can we make of the 

water in which we cook 

meat? 
How do we improve the flavor 

of meat cooked in water ? 
What is smothered meat ? 



How may we use the fat of 

meat? 
How do you prepare tender 

meat for made-over dishes? 
What must first be done with 

tough meat ? 
How many kinds of meat can 

you think of that might be 

prepared as we did the hash ? 
How many like the scalloped 

mutton? 
What use may be made of the 

bones, gristle, and fat? 
What is macaroni ? 
Why is it better to cook flour 

for gravy in hot fat instead 

of in hot water? 



LESSON VI 
PASTRY 

Recipe, No. 137. Pastry 

1 hp. e. pastry flour. 2 tbsp. dripping or butter. 

i tsp. baking-powder. 2 tbsp. lard. 

I tsp. salt. 

Sift flour, salt, and baking-powder together, and rub or 
chop in the dripping. Mix quite stiff with cold water (one- 
fourth cup or more). Turn out on a floured board, pat into 
a flat cake, roll out one fourth inch thick, and spread the 
lard over the surface. Sprinkle with flour, fold over and 
over, and roll out again into a long narrow strip. Then roll 
over and over like a jelly roll, and cut off from the end as 
needed. This recipe makes just enough for two crusts for 
plates of the usual size, or one pie with two crusts. Divide 
the dough into two parts, turn each half over on the side 
and pat into a round shape. Then roll uniformly, keeping 
the shape circular till it will fit the plate. 

Recipe, No. 138. Pies with no Under Crust 

Make all fruit pies in a deep earthen dish and without an 
under crust. Fill the dish with fruit; add sugar and cold 
water. Cut a strip of paste one half inch wide, wet the edge 
of the dish, lay the strip of paste on the wet edge, wet the 
paste, then cover with a piece of paste the size of the top of 
the dish, press the edges gently, trim and bake in a hot 
oven about thirty minutes, or until the fruit is soft. By 
using a fluted cutter the edge of the pie will be more 
attractive. 

210 



PASTRY 211 

Recipe, No. 139. Rhubarb Pie 

Wash and cut the stalks into inch-pieces. Allow one half 
cup sugar and one fourth cup water to each cup of fruit. 

Recipe, No. 140. Apple Pie 

Wipe and cut sour apples in quarters, remove the cores 
and skins, and cut each quarter in two pieces lengthwise. 
Allow two tablespoons of sugar for an ordinary apple, and if 
not juicy add one half tablespoon water. 

Recipe, No. 141. Berry Pies 

Canned berries may be used when time is limited. Make 
crust as directed and bake in deep plate with no under crust. 

Recipe, No. 142. Pies with no Upper Crust 

Line a shallow plate with the paste, let it come one half 
inch over the edge, turn the paste under to fit the plate, and 
make a scalloped edge by pressing it with the right fore- 
finger between the thumb and finger of the left hand ; or roll 
the crust to fit the plate, wet the edge, and lay a narrow strip 
of paste on the rim. 

Recipe, No. 143. Squash Pie 

IJ c. squash. | tsp. salt. 

1 c. boiling milk. J tsp. cinnamon. 

i c. sugar. 1 egg, beaten. 

Use a dry mealy squash, stew and sift it. Stir hot milk 
into the squash ; mix dry materials ; add them to the beaten 
egg ; blend well, and then stir it into the squash. Fill the 
plate and bake thirty minutes, or until it puffs up all over. 

Recipe, No. 144. Custard Pie 

3 eggs. ^ tsp. nutmeg. 

6 tbsp. sugar. 3 c. scalded milk. 

J tsp. salt. 



212 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Beat the egg-yolks until light, add sugar and salt, and beat 
again. Beat whites until light and foamy but not dry; 
mix them with the yolks ; add spice and scalded milk and 
pour into the plate. Bake slowly, and the moment it puffs 
insert a knife blade, and if it comes out clean it is done. 



LESSON VII 
PIES WITH TWO CRUSTS 

Mince and other pies which are to have both upper and 
under crusts should be baked on flat or shallow plates. 

Roll each crust to fit the plate that there may be no waste. 
The upper crust may be rolled a trifle larger, and the fullness 
thrown back into the centre to allow for the shrinking in 
baking. Make several holes in the upper crust of meat 
pies to let the steam escape. 

Recipe, No. 145. Plain Mince Pies 



1 c. meat. 

2 c. apples. 
1 tsp. salt. 

1 tsp. cinnamon. 
1 tsp. allspice. 
1 c. brown sugar. 



i c. raisms. 
i c. currants. 

1 c. of sweet-pickle vinegar, or 
t c. water and juice of 
2 lemons. 



Use any remnants of cold steak or beef, which have been 
simmered till tender. Chop fine the meat, apples, and the 
stoned raisins. If you have no sweet-pickle vinegar boil the 
plain vinegar, sugar, spice, and raisins together for ten min- 
utes. Then add the other materials and cook until the apples 
are soft. 



Recipe, No. 146. Rich Pastry for Lemon Pie 

Mix scant one half teaspoon salt with one and one fourth 
cups pastry flour. Chop in a quarter cup lard, and mix with 
cold water into stiff dough. Pound it out flat and half an 
inch thick. Put on butter in little dabs, roll up, and pat out 
again. Do this four times, using one fourth cup in all. Pat 

213 



214 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

it out again and lay on ice until chilled. Then roll it an inch 
larger than the plate and cut off for a rim ; put this strip on 
the edge, first wetting the under paste. 

Recipe, No. 147. Filling for Lemon Pie 

Mix three tablespoons cornstarch with one cup sugar, add 
one cup boiling water and boil five minutes. Add two 
tablespoons butter, the grated rind of half and juice of one 
lemon and one well beaten egg. Turn into the crust and 
bake until the crust is done. Cool and cover with a meringue 
made with the whites of two eggs, two tablespoons powdered 
sugar, and one teaspoon lemon juice. Pile it on lightly and 
color a delicate brown. If preferred, cover with the pastry 
and press the edges lightly. 



LESSON VIII 
BAKED MEAT (IN WATER) 

Meat is sometimes cooked in water in the oven instead 
of over the fire, and this way of cooking is often erroneously 
called roasting, but it is a form of baking. 

Roasting means to heat violently and is done either before 
the open fire, or in a hot oven without any water. If water 
be used the meat cannot be made any hotter than boiling 
water; and a much greater degree of heat is required to 
cook meats with a tender fibre and rich in juice and flavor, 
so that the outside surface may be quickly seared thus pre- 
venting the escape of the juices. 

Tough pieces, which require the solvent power of water, 
and which are lacking in flavor, are improved by the addition 
of a savory stufling, or by seasoning the water with herbs and 
vegetables ; also by first browning the meat in hot dripping. 
The flavor imparted by the partially confined heat of the 
oven is stronger than that of boiling. 

Sometimes meat is steamed over boiling water until it is 
made tender, then put in the oven to be browned and receive 
the flavor which can be obtained only by means of this dry 
heat. 

A convenient way is to put the meat into a tightly covered 
stone jar, or bean pot, without water ; place it in a moderate 
oven for one hour, or until some juice is drawn out, then 
increase the heat and cook a half hour for every pound of 
meat. There will be a large quantity of juice in the jar, which 
should be diluted with water, thickened, and used as a gravy. 
The meat may be cut in small pieces when the time for cook- 
ing is limited. 

These are all savory and wholesome methods of cooking 

215 



216 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the less expensive parts of meat. Fresh meat cooked prop- 
erly is equally palatable and far more nutritious than corned 
or salt meat, which forms too large a part of the diet of many 
people. 

GENERAL RULE FOR BAKED MEAT 

All meat for baking or roasting should be dredged all over 
with salt and flour, but not until just before cooking. Salt 
draws out a little of the juice, but the flour absorbs it, and 
when the heat hardens the albumin, this helps to make a 
thick crust through which the juices cannot escape. 

Use no water at first, nor at all with small pieces which 
require quick cooking or to be done rare ; but after the first 
searing, large pieces that require to be cooked thoroughly 
may have a little water added to prevent them from burning 
or becoming too dry. Baste often and bake. 

Meat which has a layer of fat on the top, — such as ribs 
of beef, loin of mutton or of pork, — if put into the pan 
with the fat side up, will need but little basting. The fat 
in melting bastes the meat. 

CASSEROLE COOKING 

The principle in this method of cooking is the same as that 
in stewing, pot roasting, and the other combinations of dry 
and moist heat. The modern name for the method comes 
from the utensil which is used. A casserole is an earthenware 
dish, round or oval in shape, — sometimes with a handle on the 
side, — having a tightly fitting cover, thus keeping the steam, 
heat, and odor within in the food. Casseroles may be found 
in various sizes and some are fitted into a holder. Covered 
earthenware jars and bean pots have long been used for this 
method of cooking, but they are neither convenient nor 
attractive for serving. The shape, color, and holder in which 
the casserole rests, make it an attractive dish for the table. 
The food, served correctly from the dish, is hot and remains 
hot during the meal. Having been tightly covered during 
the long, slow process of steaming, the food is tender and 
retains all its savory odors. 



BAKED MEAT (iN WATER) 217 

POT ROASTING 

Meat may be steamed in its own juices and the method is 
called Pot Roasting. The meat should be left whole for con- 
venience in slicing and serving neatly, particularly if to be 
served cold. It is cooked over the fire with a little water in 
the kettle to prevent burning. The water should be kept at 
the simmering point, and be replenished as needed. By 
watching it and letting the water cook nearly out so that the 
meat begins to sizzle, but not burn, the flavor of browning is 
developed. Then add a little hot water and continue the 
simmering. Repeat this several times. Some of the juices 
are drawn out into the water and the steam heats and softens 
the meat. These juices make a rich and savory gravy. 

Recipe, No. 148. Gravy for Roast Meat 

To make it in the pan, pour off nearly all the fat. Put the 
pan on the stove and add dry flour until the fat is all absorbed. 
Then add hot water or hot stock, and stir as it thickens. 
Cook five to eight minutes, season, and strain. 

Recipe, No. 149. Baked Heart 

Wash the heart thoroughly in cold water to remove the 
blood and cut out the veins and arteries. Make a stuffing 
with two tablespoons bread crumbs, one teaspoon chopped 
onions (which must first be scalded), one half teaspoon 
powdered sage, one fourth teaspoon salt, and a speck of 
pepper. Moisten it with milk or water. Stuff this into the 
cavity and sew the edges together. Peel, slice, and brown an 
onion in two tablespoons drippings ; then brown the heart 
in the same fat ; put it with the onion into a deep dish, and 
half cover with boiling water. Cover the dish and bake in a 
hot oven one hour, or until tender, basting every ten minutes, 
and add more water if needed. 

Recipe, No. 150. Stewed Ribs of Beef 

This is a convenient dish, for, after it is once prepared, it 
takes care of itself, and it is a palatable and satisfying dinner, 



218 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

suitable for cold weather. Select two or three pounds from 
the chuck rib of beef and have it cut into small pieces. Wipe 
carefully and remove any crumbs of bone. Be careful about 
these bone crumbs, especially in dishes where the broth is 
to be used without straining. Prepare also one small carrot 
sliced and one fourth of a sweet green pepper freed from seeds. 
Remove every seed, for one, if left, will spoil the whole dish. 
Mix the prepared vegetables and then mix two tablespoons 
of pearl sago, one tablespoon of bread crumbs, one table- 
spoon of vinegar, one eighth of a nutmeg grated, one table- 
spoon of salt, one fourth tablespoon of pepper, and the 
grated rind of one fourth of a lemon. Pack the meat closely 
in a stone jar, or a casserole if large enough, or in a bean pot, 
putting it in layers with the vegetables and seasonings. 
Add cold water to cover the whole ; then cover the jar tightly 
and let it bake slowly for about five hours. 



Recipe, No. 151. Smothered Beef 

Cut one pound of round of beef into one-inch cubes and 
put it into a tightly covered jar and into the oven for one 
hour. It should be in a cool part of the oven for the first 
half hour and then the heat be increased. Thicken and 
season the juice and serve as a gravy. 



Recipe, No. 152. Smothered Chicken 

Select a tender and young chicken and after it has been cut 
into joints, rub the flesh with salt, and powder with paprika. 
When thus prepared, put the chicken into a casserole or 
stewpan with a tight cover. Add a quart can of tomatoes, 
but no water. Cover and let them cook slowly on top of 
the range or in the oven until the chicken is done. Arrange 
the chicken on a hot platter and add a cup of cream to the 
tomato. Add more salt and paprika if needed and when 
hot, pour the sauce over the chicken just before it is served. 

Paprika or Hungarian pepper is made from a variety 
of sweet red pepper and is much less fiery than cayenne. 



BAKED MEAT (iN WATER) 219 

TIME-TABLE FOR BAKING MEATS 

Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb 8 to 10 m. 

Beef, sirloin, well done, per lb 12 to 15 

Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb 12 to 15 

Beef, long or short fillet 20 to 30 

Mutton, rare, per lb 10 

Mutton, well done, per lb 15 

Lamb, '' '' '' 15 

Veal, *' ** " 20 

Pork, " ** *' 30 

Turkey, 10 lbs. wt 3 hrs 

Chickens, 3 to 4 lbs. wt 1 to li " 

Goose, 8 lbs. 2 " 

Tame duck 40 to 60 m 

Game " 30 to 40 

Grouse 30 

Pigeons 30 

Small birds 15 to 20 

Venison, per lb 15 



LESSON IX 
STEWS 

When the object of cooking is to have the nutriment partly 
in the meat and partly in the water, the dish is called a stew. 

Use a small quantity of water, — less than in making 
soups, — and cook at a moderate heat for a long time. The 
word stew means a slow, moist, gentle heat. As some of the 
nutriment is to be in the meat cut it into pieces convenient 
for serving. Put the bones, gristly portions, and the poorer 
parts of the lean meat into cold water. This draws out 
enough nutriment to enrich the broth. When the water 
boils, add the tender portions that their juices may be kept 
in them. By this slow, steady simmering, rather than by 
fierce boiling, the fibres are softened, and the coarsest and 
cheapest kinds of meat are made tender and nutritious. 

Any meat that is juicy and not tough may be first browned 
on the outside to retain the juice and improve the flavor ; 
but should you have any cold pieces of roast beef or steak, 
these may be used and will have the same effect. Some 
proteids are soluble in vegetable acids, such as those in vinegar 
and lemon juice. If coarse, tough pieces of meat are soaked 
in vinegar, the fibres will be softened and the meat made 
more tender. Meat containing much gristle should be put 
into cold water. Meat from the upper part of the shin, 
the aitch bone, flank, neck, and shoulder, — the less expen- 
sive parts, — are suitable for stews. 

Fowls, tough game, the tougher parts of mutton, lamb, 
or veal, any meats which have been previously cooked, 
and any kind of large white fish may be stewed. Meat 
that has some bone and fat makes a richer stew. A great 
variety of economical, wholesome, and palatable dishes may 

220 



STEWS 221 

be prepared as stews, and there are many names given to 
this form of cooking. 

A stew usually has vegetables and dumplings cooked with 
the meat. 

A haricot of mutton or any other meat is a stew with the 
meat and vegetables cut fine, — into bits, the size of a haricot 
bean. 

A ragout is a stew highly flavored with wine. 

A salmi is a stew of game. 

A chowder is a stew of fish. 

A fricassee is a form of stewing where the meat is sauted 
or browned in fat, either before or after stewing, and is usually 
served without vegetables. 

A pot-pie is a stew with the dough put on as a crust instead 
of in the form of dumplings. 

Braising is a form of stewing usually done in a covered 
pan in the oven. The slow, uniform heat from the confined 
hot air in the oven gives a richer, stronger flavor than that 
obtained by stewing over the fire. 

Onions, carrots, turnips, and potatoes are often used in a 
stew. Onions may be put in with the meat, but the other 
vegetables should be cut small, and added about half an 
hour before the stew is done. The kettle should be drawn 
forward, that the water may boil, not simmer, while the 
vegetables are cooking. This will not harm the meat as it 
would if boiled rapidly at first. Remove the bones and fat 
before adding the vegetables. 

A dumpling is a small biscuit-like portion- of dough dropped 
or dumped quickly into the boiling liquid. There should 
be only liquid enough to come nearly to the top of the meat 
and vegetables, that the dumplings may rest on them and 
not sink into the liquid. The steam from the savory broth 
will cook the dumplings and impart a richer flavor than if 
cooked in a steamer over the stew. Cover the kettle closely, 
as soon as the dumplings are in, and let the stew boil steadily 
ten minutes, without lifting the cover. Serve them at once. 
As they are to be eaten with meat they require no shortening. 
The same dough may be cut into small cakes and baked as 
biscuit. 



222 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 153. Beef Stew 

i lb. beef. 2 potatoes. 

f onion. Salt and pepper. 

J c. turnip, cut in half -inch dice. Flour. 

i c. carrot, diced. Water to cover. 

Wipe the meat, cut it into small pieces, and remove all the 
fine crumbly bones. Put the larger bones and tough meat 
into the kettle and cover with cold water. Melt the fat in a 
frying-pan, dredge the tender meat with salt, pepper, and 
flour, and brown it in the hot fat. Brown the sliced onions 
also, and then put the meat and onions into the kettle. Cover 
with boiling water. Simmer from two to three hours, or till 
the meat is tender. Half an hour before serving remove 
the fat and bones and add the other vegetables. Pare the 
potatoes, cut them into quarters, parboil them five minutes, 
and put them into the stew. Cook twenty minutes. When 
ready to serve, skim out the meat and potatoes, put them on a 
dish, thicken the gravy if needed, add more seasoning, and 
one half cup of strained tomato if desired. Pour the gravy 
over the meat. 

Recipe, No. 154. Dumplings 

1 pt. flour. 2 tsp. baking-powder. 

i tsp. salt. 1 scant c. milk. 

Mix the dry ingredients and stir in the milk gradually to 
make a soft dough. Drop quickly by the spoonful into the 
boiling stew, letting the dumplings rest on the meat and 
potatoes. Cover closely to keep in the steam, and cook 
just ten minutes, without lifting the cover. Serve at once. 

Recipe, No. 155. Veal Fricassee 

The ends of the ribs, the breast, the neck, and the smaller 
part of the knuckle may be utilized in a stew or fricassee. 

Cut the meat, two pounds, in small pieces and remove all 
the fine crumbly bones. Dredge with flour and brown it in 
dripping or salt pork fat. Cover the meat with boiling 



it 



STEWS 223 

water, skim as It begins to boU, and add two small onions, 
one teaspoon salt, and one half teaspoon pepper. Simmer 
until tender. Remove the larger bones ; add a flour 
thickening and more seasoning if necessary. Cook ten 
minutes ; add one half cup of milk and two tablespoons of 
butter. 

Potatoes and dumplings may be cooked with the veal if a 
stew be desired. 



Recipe, No. 156. Veal Cutlets 

Use slices from rump, loin, or ribs ; remove bones, tendons, 
and skin ; cover them with cold water and stew for the gravy. 
Cook veal fat in the spider until brown and crisp ; pound and 
shape meat into pieces for serving ; cover them with fine stale 
bread crumbs, then with beaten eggs, again with the crumbs, 
and brown them in the hot fat, adding salt pork fat if own 
fat is not sufficient ; then cook more slowly until done, with 
no trace of pink color, for veal should never be rare. Remove 
meat and crisp fat; add dry flour to the hot fat and stir 
until brown, adding gradually the boiling water from the 
bones. Season with salt, pepper, and lemon if you like, 
and serve as gravy. If lean meat from the leg or some tough 
part, has been used, put it into a stewpan when browned, and 
pour gravy over it and let it simmer for half an hour. 



Questions on Lessons VIII and IX 

What is the most eeonomical What kinds of meat are suit- 
way of cooking meat ? able for a stew ? 

What is stewing ? What is a haricot ; a ragout ; a 

How do we prepare the meat for salmi ; a chowder ; a fricas- 

stewing ? see ; a pot pie ? 

What parts of meat are to be What besides meat do we put 

put into boiling water? into a stew? 

What into cold water, and why ? What are dumplings, and how 

Can a stew be made of cold do you make them ? 

steak or roast beef? What are the important points 

How may we make tough meat to remember in cooking 

tender before stewing it? dumplings? 



224 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 






Diagram of < 


3x. 


1. 


Tip of Sirloin. 


12. 


Shin. 


2. 


Middle of Sirloin. 


13. 


Boneless Flank. 


3. 


First Cut of Sirloin. 


14. 


Thick Flank with Bone. 


4. 


Back of Rump. 


15. 


First Cut of Ribs. 


5. 


Middle of Rump. 




c. Chuck Ribs. 


6. 


Face of Rump. 




d. Neck. 


7. 


Aiteh Bone. 


16. 


Rattle Rand. 


8. 


Lower Part of Round. 


17. 


Second Cut of Rattle Rand. 


Sh 


Top of Round. 


18. 


Brisket (a. the navel end; 


9. 


Vein. 




h, the butt end). 


10. 


Poorer Part of Round. 


19. 


Fore Shin. 


11. 


Poorer Part of Vein. 







STEWS 



225 




A. Hind quarter of Beef. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, Round of Beef. 
7, 8, 9, Rump. 10, 11, 12, Sirloin. 13, 14, Flank. 



1. Shin. Suitable to be used 
for soups and stock. 

2. Lower or poorer part of 
the round, used for stews, 
etc. 

3. Upper and best part of the 
round, used for steak and beef 
tea. 

Top of round. The best 
round steak as far as the ridge 
of fat. 

4. Lower or poorer part of 
vein, used for stews, chopping, 
braising. 

5. Upper and best part of 
vein, used for boiling, steak, 
beef tea, spiced beef, etc. 

6. Aitchbone, used for roast, 
stew, and stock. 

7. Face of rump, used for a 
roast or steaks. 



8. Middle of rump, used for 
steak. 

9. Back of rump, used for 
roasts or steaks. 

These steaks may be cut with 
the grain, or across the grain, of 
the meat. The cross-cut steaks 
are much the best. 

10. First cut of sirloin, used 
for a roast or steaks. It con- 
tains tenderloin. 

11. Second cut of sirloin, 
used for roasts or steaks ; it 
contains tenderloin. 

12. Tip of sirloin, used for 
roast or short steaks. Contains 
no tenderloin. 

13. Thick end of flank. Used 
for corning, rolling, boiling. 

14. Thin end of flank. Used 
for corning, rolling, boiling. 



226 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 




B, Fore quarter of Beef. 1, 2, 3, Back-half. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 

10, Rattle rand. 



1. First five ribs or prime 
ribs. Five-rib cut. Used for 
roasts and steaks. 

2. Five chuck ribs. Poorer 
roasts and steaks. 

3. Neck, used for beef tea, 
stews, boiling, etc. 

4. Sticking piece, used for 
corning. 

5. Shoulder, used for steaks, 
corning, etc. 



6. Shin, used for soups and 
soup stock. 

7. First strip rattle rand, 
used for corning. 

8. Middle strip of rattle 
rand, used for corning. 

9. Butt end of brisket, used 
for corning. 

10. Navel end of brisket, 
used for corning. 



LESSON X 
MEAT 

Meat is a general term applied to the flesh of animals 
used for food. It includes the muscular flesh, sinews, fat, 
heart, liver, stomach, brains, and tongue, and is divided 
into three classes : — 

Meat proper, including beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and 
pork; 

Poultry, including chicken, turkey, geese, and ducks, 
or all domestic fowls ; 

Game, including partridges, grouse, pigeons, quail, and 
other birds, squirrels, rabbits, venison, and any wild meat 
that is hunted in the forest or field. 

All meat should be removed from the paper in which it 
is wrapped as soon as it comes from the market, or the 
paper will absorb the juices, and the meat will taste of the 
paper. 

Examine a piece of meat. First wipe it all over with a 
clean, damp cloth, to cleanse it ; but it should never be put 
into water, as this draws out the juices. 

We find large masses of red flesh or muscle, made up 
of little bundles of thread-like fibres or tubes separated by 
white membranes, and the large masses separated by cellu- 
lar tissue. These fibres seem full of a red, watery juice. 
There is fat on the edge, or inner skin, also between the 
fibres, and large masses of it are between the muscles and 
in the hollow bones. We find a small amount of bone; 
a hard, white, gelatinous substance around the joints, called 
gristle; and white, shiny, tough membranes or tendons 
at the ends of the muscles. 

These masses of fibre we call the lean meat. In one 

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228 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

part the fibres seem coarse and flabby, separate easily, and 
have thin membranes connecting them. These membranes 
are called connective tissue. If we press the meat we find 
only a little juice. In another section the fibres are smaller, 
finer, very close together, and feel hard and firm. We 
cannot separate them, there is so much of the connective 
tissue ; but there is a large quantity of juice. In still another 
piece we find soft, tender fibre with little membrane and 
juice. 

Good beef should be bright-red when first cut, well mar- 
bled with yellowish fat, and with a thick outside layer of 
fat. The flesh must be firm, and when pressed with the 
finger no mark should be left. The inner fat or suet should 
be dry and crumble easily. 

The best mutton is that from a large, heavy animal, 
should have an abundance of hard, clear-white fat, and the 
flesh should be fine-grained and bright-red. Poor mutton 
has but little fat and little fiesh as compared with the bone. 

More depends upon the quality of the meat than upon 
its location in the creature. A slice from the sirloin in a 
poorly fed creature may not be so rich in flavor and nutri- 
ment as one from the flank in a well-fed animal. 

The muscles that are used most are the toughest, but 
they contain the largest amount of juice, for the blood cir- 
culates most freely through them. The heart is a muscle 
used more than any other and has a tough, close, compact 
fibre. 

The legs have large, thick muscles which start near the 
lower end, among a mass of tendons and cords, and grow 
larger, thicker, and more tender, till at the upper end they 
are very thick. Here is where we shall find the largest 
amount of lean meat with only the small, round leg bones. 
The upper part of the leg is called the round and the lower 
end the shin. 

On the thighs, or rump, there are large, broad bones, 
with large muscles, branching out in several directions, 
which are tender and juicy. The muscles on the upper 
part of the fore leg are smaller and not so tender as those on 
the round. 



MEAT 229 

Where the fore leg joins the shoulder and down the 
back, we find the shoulder blade — a broad, flat bone — ■ 
and the backbone ; also a number of small muscles running 
in all directions. We cannot expect to find much lean meat 
here ; but we do find bone, gristle, and fat, with thin layers 
of meat between them. 

Under the shoulder blade, and extending down the back- 
bone to the loin, are the ribs, running at right angles with the 
backbone, meeting at the breast and tapering off at the 
loin. These bones are covered with a thick muscle near 
the back, and with many layers of muscle, fat, and tough 
membranes, extending round to the breast. 

On the loin, and close to the backbone, there is a muscle 
which is not much used. It is merely a cushion over the 
bones ; this is all tender and juicy, and is considered so 
choice that it has been named '^ Sir Loin.'' 

Inside of the loin and under the short ribs is another 
muscle which is so little used that it is very soft and tender 
and has but little juice or flavor. This is called tenderloin. 

On the flank or under part of the body there are no bones, 
but many thin, flabby muscles with large elastic membranes 
between them, so they can be stretched to a great size. They 
cross, lap over, and extend in many directions, and some- 
times have large quantities of fat stored between and under 
them. These are plainly seen in corned beef. 

The ends of the legs and the large joints have gristle 
and tendon like the drum stick of a chicken, which contain 
gelatine, — a substance which softens in cold water and then 
dissolves by long, slow cooking in hot water. But when 
cooked by dry heat it becomes hard. 

Thus you see that in an animal there is a great amount 
of bone and fat, and only a small portion of choice, tender, 
juicy, lean meat. The thick, lean, tender portions on the 
rump and loin are the choice and expensive parts. These 
are best when cooked quickly, by intense heat, as in roasting 
and broiling ; they have so much juice and such tender 
fibre, that they do not need the solvent agency of water. 

But the tougher, cheaper parts of lean meat are very 
juicy, and when properly cooked afford a large amount 



230 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

of nutriment. The bones contain protein and mineral 
matter, a part of which can be dissolved by proper cooking ; 
the fat is rich in heat-giving material; and the gelatinous 
portions are useful. 

The juices of meat contain many substances which are 
valuable as food, and savory principles called extractives 
which give flavor to the meat and cause it to differ in different 
animals. 

In salting meat this juice is drawn out into the brine, 
and although there is some nutriment in the fat and fibre 
of salt meat, it is less nutritious than fresh meat. 

It is therefore important, as a matter of economy and 
health, that we learn how to cook all parts of meat so as 
to obtain the greatest amount of nutriment, and develop 
the flavors which make it more palatable. 



Questions on Meat 

What is meat ? What part of the creature is 

How many varieties of meat the round ? 

can you mention ? Which is the most nourish- 

What is the first thing to do ing, — the tenderloin or the 

when meat comes from the shin? 

market ? Which costs most, — the rump 

How should it be cleansed ? or neck ? 

Does every part of meat con- How should meat that con- 
tain nutriment ? tains bone and gelatine be 

How would you select good cooked? 

beef? Which portions of meat are 

Where would you find the most best cooked by quick, in- 
juicy meat ? tense heat ? 

In what parts would you find 
the least bone ? 



LESSON XI 
SOUPS 

Nearly all parts of an animal may be used as food, but 
from some parts we can obtain the nutriment in only one 
way. These are the bones and the gristle, tendons, and 
other gelatinous portions, some kinds of fat, and the lean 
meat which is tough and coarse in texture, or difficult to 
separate from the gristle and sinews imbedded in it. Many 
people consider these portions undesirable and dealers 
often have to dispose of them as refuse. But when cooked 
slowly in water at a moderate heat a large part of their 
nutriment is dissolved in the water, and may be used in this 
liquid form. The bony portions in roasted or baked meat 
are deemed even more undesirable, and are often thrown 
away as unfit for food. But even if previously cooked, 
some nutriment may be obtained from them, tod they should 
always be saved and used in soups, if only for their flavor. 

It is better to cook a large quantity at a time, as consider- 
able time is required to extract all the nutriment; and the 
broth, when obtained, may be kept a week or more. 

This liquid in which the meat has been cooked is used 
in making soup ; and because it can be stored or kept on 
hand and drawn upon when needed, it is called stock. 

In making soup our object is to draw the nutriment 
from the meat and bones into the water. Cut the meat 
into small pieces, and soak in cold water before heating, to 
soften and loosen the fibres and extract all the nutriment 
possible. Careless^ cooks soak the meat to cleanse it and 
then throw the water away. Meat should be cleansed by 
wiping with a damp cloth. 

Use all kinds of meat, — beef, veal, mutton, or poultry, 

231 



232 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

— either together or separately. As each kind of meat has 
its distinctive flavor, a greater variety of soups may be made 
by using them separately. A good soup may be made from 
a mixture of all the bones and fragments of meat which one 
may happen to have. But to make the most nutritious 
and palatable soup both cooked and uncooked meats are 
needed ; also bone, gelatine, fat, and a variety of seasoning 
material. 

The salts found in the blood and juices of uncooked flesh 
are valuable as food ; therefore a small portion of raw, lean 
meat is essential in making soup. Browned or roasted meat 
improves the flavor of the broth, because in such meats the 
flavor has been more highly developed. The marrow found 
in the shin bone, and the browned fat of cooked meats, 
give a fine flavor; and portions containing gelatine afford 
a certain amount of nutriment, and by hardening like jelly 
when the stock is cold, it keeps longer than if it were in a 
liquid form. Vegetables which have been cut fine, sweet 
herbs, and spices, are used to season and flavor the stock. 

When the juices are drawn out and the water is red, 
draw the kettle forward where the water will almost boil, 

— just bubble on one side of the kettle. This gentle 
heat, continued steadily and for a long time, will dissolve 
the gelatinous portions. The water must bubble slightly, 
for if the temperature be allowed to fall too low the soup 
will sour. 

The kettle should be covered closely to keep in the steam 
and the savory odors which would be wasted by evaporation 
if it were uncovered. It is wasteful to skim soup-stock. 
The scum that rises as the water heats contains some of the 
very substances which are desired in the water. They in- 
crease the flavor of the stock and should be retained. After 
a time they settle as sediment, and all the sediment that is 
fine enough to go through the strainer should be used. In 
clear soups it may be removed, but clear soups are not the 
most nutritious. 

After simmering several hours, or until the bones are 
clean and the meat is in shreds, strain the stock, and throw 
away the scraps. This worthless residue of muscular 



SOUPS 233 

fibre and bones is dry, tasteless, and useless as food. When 
the fibrin from meat is desired it is better to cook the meat 
in other ways, as in stews, which are often miscalled soups. 
Soup should not be considered a complete food but only as 
one of a variety of foods, — a stimulant to prepare the stom- 
ach for the heavier food. 

The stock will keep better if the fat be retained, as when 
cold it forms an air-tight covering. As the fat is more easily 
removed when cold, make the stock the day before it is 
needed, and strain it into several small jars, that the amount 
required may be used without disturbing the remainder. 

When ready to use this stock for soup, take off all the fat, 
and save it for clarifying. Heat the stock to the boiling- 
point, and serve it alone, or put with it any vegetable, rice, 
macaroni, barley, or tapioca, which has been previously 
cooked till tender. 

Recipe, No. 157. A General Recipe for Stock 

Equal parts by weight of meat and bone, and one quart 
of water to every pound of meat and bone. Where there 
is more bone than meat, or only cooked meat, water enough 
to cover is a correct proportion. For every quart of water 
use 

1 tsp. salt, 1 tsp. mixed sweet herbs. 

4 peppercorns. 2 tbsp. each vegetable cut fine. 

4 whole cloves. 

If allspice, mace, and celery seed be used, less of each 
spice will be required. The herbs are whole thyme, mar- 
joram, summer savory, and bay leaves. Strip off the leaves 
and blossoms, break the small stalks in tiny pieces, mix 
them, and keep them in a tin box. Use a teaspoon of the 
mixture, not of each herb. The vegetables generally used 
are onion, carrot, turnip, celery, and parsley. If you have 
only two kinds, use more of each. They only give addi- 
tional flavor to the broth. When it is desired to eat them 
with the soup, cook them separately, and add to the soup 
just before serving. • 

There are soups in which parts of the meat are served 



234 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

with the broth. These are made from chicken, veal, ox- 
tails, and calf's head. The meat is not cut as small as when 
it is to be used for stock. As soon as it is tender, it is removed 
and added to the strained stock just before serving. 
Soups made from light meats, veal and chicken, and from 
fish, are often made richer by the addition of eggs, or thick- 
ened with white sauce. 

Recipe, No. 158. Condensed Recipe for Soup Stock 

2 lbs. hind shin of beef. 2 tsp. salt. 

2 qts. cold water. 1 small onion. 

6 whole cloves. i " carrot. 

6 peppercorns. 2 " turnip. 

1 bunch of sweet herbs. 1 sprig parsley. 
I inch blade mace. 

Wipe and cut the bones and meat into small pieces. Put 
the marrow, bones, and cold water into the kettle. Soak 
one half hour before heating. Add spices, herbs, and the 
vegetables cut fine. Simmer six or seven hours and strain. 
When needed for soup remove the fat ; heat the stock to the 
boiling-point ; and season to taste. 



LESSON XII 
REVIEW OF SOUPS 

Recipe, No. 159. Macaroni Soup 

1 c. stock. i tsp. salt. 

I stick macaroni. 1 spk. pepper. 

Cook the macaroni in boiling salted water about one haK 
hour, or until tender. Drain and cut into thin slices or 
rings ; put them into the soup tureen with the salt and pepper 
and pour the boiling stock over them. 

Recipe, No. 160. Mixed Vegetable Soup 

1 c. stock. 2 tbsp. turnip. 

2 tbsp. carrot. J tsp. salt. 

Wash and scrape the carrot and pare the turnip. Cut 
into quarter-inch dice. Put into boiling, salted water and 
cook until tender. Drain and add, with the salt, to the 
boiling stock. 

Questions on Soups 

What is the most economical Is it enough to put the kettle 

way to use the bones and on the stove, and leave the 

tough parts of meat ? broth to simmer or not as 

What is stock ? the case may be ? 

Why do we use cold water in Why do we cover the kettle? 

starting stock ? What is the scum ? 

Why is it better to soak the What shall we do with the 

meat before heating it ? residue ? 

Should we leave the meat Is soup a complete food? 

whole? How does fat help to keep the 

What is the advantage of using stock ? 

a portion of uncooked meat ? What is a general rule for 

May we also use any fragments stock ? 

of cooked meat ? What is thyme ? marjoram ? 

235 



LESSON XIII 
BATTERS 

Batters are thin mixtures of flour and liquid made in the 
proportion of one scant measure of liquid to one full measure 
of flour. If merely mixed and cooked slowly they would 
be hard and compact. But they are made light by the 
admixture of air or gas and by quick cooking before the air 
or gas has a chance to escape. 

Air at 70° Fah. expands to about three times its volume 
when exposed to the temperature of a hot oven. So, as 
the mixture heats in cooking, the expansion of the air in 
the batter makes it light and porous. 

Air is infolded in batters by beating the mixture thor- 
oughly, as in whole-wheat gems ; by beating air into eggs, 
and using the beaten eggs in the mixture, as in popovers ; 
and by the gas obtained by the union of an acid with an al- 
kaline carbonate, as in the use of baking-powder in the 
griddle cakes. 

As it is important that batters be baked at once before 
the gas escapes, it is always well to see that the fire is in the 
proper condition, and to have the pans and ingredients 
ready before beginning to put the materials together, that 
there may be no needless delay. The general rule for mix- 
ing all batters is to mix the salt and baking-powder (if that 
is to be used) with the flour, beat the eggs, add half the liquid 
to the beaten eggs, and stir this gradually into the flour; 
then add the remainder of the liquid, beat all thoroughly, 
and bake quickly. When the expression '^ beat the eggs 
separately'' occurs in a recipe it means beat the yolks and 
whites separately. 

This lesson illustrates two of the ways of mixing, namely, 

236 



BATTERS 237 

stirring and beating. Also the simplest way of cooking in 
hot fat. 

Stirring, Stir means simply to blend or mix two or more 
materials. In mixing dry materials, stir or move the spoon 
round and round in the material until well blended. In 
mixing dry materials with liquids, add the liquid gradually, 
and stir slowly at first to avoid spattering. Be sure that 
the bowl of the spoon — not the edge nor the tip merely — 
touches the bottom and sides of the bowl. This is mashing 
as well as stirring, and the mixture soon becomes a paste. 
When perfectly smooth, add more liquid until the desired 
consistency is obtained. We stir flour and water together 
for a thickening, and we stir flour and butter and milk for a 
sauce, but when air is needed in the mixture, we beat. 

Beating, Tip the bowl slightly, and hold the spoon 
so that the edge scrapes the bowl, and bring it up through 
the mixture, and over with a long quick stroke to the opposite 
side; under and up through again, lifting the spoon out of 
the mass, cutting clear through, and scraping from the bot- 
tom at every stroke. We beat eggs, batters, and soft doughs. 
The albumin of the eggs and the gluten of the flour, owing to 
their glutinous properties, catch the air and hold it in the 
form of bubbles, something as we make soap bubbles by 
blowing air into soapy water. The faster we beat, and the 
more we bring the material up from the bowl into the air, 
the more bubbles we have; but one stirring motion will 
break them. So in any mixture where we wish to obtain 
all the air possible we must be careful to beat and not to stir. 

Thin batters, like gems made without eggs and popovers, 
should be beaten vigorously just before baking. Batters 
require to be baked in a hot oven, but if it be too hot, the 
sudden expansion of the air bursts the bubbles and the 
mixture falls. 

In cooking batters in iron or tin, grease the dishes to keep 
the mixture from sticking. The fat on the dish heats quickly, 
and so helps to cook the outside of the mixture. This 
heat gives a flavor and texture to the crust different from 
those of the inside. The greater heat of the fat on the hot 
griddle gives a crust different from that obtained by baking 



238 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

in the oven. There the under crust that comes in contact 
with the greased pan is unHke the top crust which had no 
fat in contact with it, and all these crusts are unlike that 
of the steamed pudding, because they have been subjected 
to greater heat. The brown color and the flavor of crusts 
are caused by the change of some of the starch into dextrine. 
Cooking on a greased griddle is a two-sided baking, — 
first on one side, then turning and baking the other side. It 
is one form of cooking with hot fat, and from carelessness, 
too much fat is often used. It is called frying; but true 
frying is immersion in hot fat. It is really sauteing, because 
the cakes are turned over, but many prefer the word baking. 
A well-greased griddle or pan is one greased uniformly, — not 
a daub here and there, nor masses of grease in the corners, 
but just a thin coating of fat laid uniformly over the entire 
surface. Any more fat than enough to prevent the food from 
sticking is unnecessary, and is absorbed by the food, making 
it unwholesome. Very thin batters, or those containing eggs 
and sugar, require more fat than other kinds ; but stiff 
doughs, like pastry and plain cookies, often need none. 

Recipe, No. 161. Griddle Cakes 

1 c. flour. i tsp. soda. 

i tsp. salt. 1 c. sour milk\ 

J tsp. baking-powder. 2 tsp. melted butter. 

Put the sour milk into a bowl. If one eighth of the liquid 
is sour cream, omit the butter. Turn in the sifted flour 
but do not mix. Lay a fine strainer over the flour and sift 
the soda, baking-powder, and salt through it, mixing it 
lightly into the dry flour. As the acid in the sour milk 
varies in amount the baking-powder is necessary. Stir until 
all the flour is moistened and the mixture begins to puff. If 
an egg is to be used, — and cakes are better with it, — add 
it unbeaten and beat until light and smooth. As both milk 
and flour vary in consistency, more of one or the other may 
be needed. The batter should be like thick cream as it is 
poured from the spoon. Rub the griddle all over with a 
thin bacon rind, leaving only a film of fat on the surface. 



BATTERS 239 

The surest way is to fry a spoonful and add more liquid if 
the batter be too thick to run easily on the griddle, and 
more flour if the cake spreads too much or will not hold 
its shape in turning. Pour the batter from the tip of a 
tablespoon, to make the cakes round; if poured from the 
side they may be irregular in shape. When one side is full 
of bubbles, turn the cakes over and brown the other side 
until it stops puffing. Half flour and half fine white com 
meal, or whole wheat flour, may be used. 

This method illustrates one of the short cuts in cooking. 
Here separate beating of the eggs is unnecessary on account 
of the gas from the soda. 



Recipe, No. 162. Buckwheat Cakes 

Mix overnight, two cups buckwheat, one cup Graham 
flour and one teaspoon salt. Stir in warm water for thick 
batter, two tablespoons molasses and one half cake com- 
pressed yeast dissolved in water. In the morning, stir the 
batter down ; if too thick, thin with warm water, or if any 
sour odor, add one fourth teaspoon soda dissolved in water. 
Raise again and fry on greased griddle as wanted. 



LESSON XIV 
REVIEW OF BATTERS 

Recipe, No. 163. Whole-wheat or Graham Gems 

I c. Graham flour. J e. milk or water. 

J tsp. salt. 

Mix salt with flour, add liquid gradually till smooth. Beat 
thoroughly. Drop by spoonfuls on a hot, well-greased 
griddle, or bake in hissing hot, buttered gem-pans, thirty 
minutes. 

Recipe, No. 164. Popovers 

1 c. flour. 1 c. milk. 

I tsp. salt. 1 egg. 

Mix the salt with the flour, add half of the milk slowly, 
and when a smooth paste is formed, add the remainder and 
the egg beaten thoroughly. Beat well before filling the 
pans. Cook in hot, buttered gem-pans, or earthen cups, in 
a hot oven half an hour, or until the puffs are brown and 
well popped over. 

They should rise well before browning, and remain in the 
oven until the crust is well cooked, otherwise they will settle 
and the crusts will stick together. A popover should be 
hollow and nearly dry inside. 

Questions on Batters 

What are batters? What do we use in the griddle 

Why should batters be light cakes to make them rise ? 

and porous ? Why should batters be cooked 

How does air make a batter soon after they are mixed? 

light? What is the proportion of flour 

How are popovers made light ? and liquid for a batter ? 

240 



REVIEW OF BATTERS 



241 



What is the difference between crusts of anything cooked 



stirring and beating ? 
How do you mix a batter ? 
When do we stir, and when do 

we beat, a mixture? 
Why do we grease a dish in which 

a batter is to be cooked ? 
What causes the differences in 



on a griddle, in the oven, and 
by steam? 

How many kinds of griddle 
cakes may be made ? 

How could you vary the pop- 
overs ? 



LESSON XV 

THICKER BATTERS OR DOUGHS TO BE 

DROPPED 

There are several degrees of thickness in batters. Thin 
batters are about the consistency of thin cream ; thick 
batters are Uke thick cream; still thicker batters are stiff 
enough to keep their shape when dropped from a spoon. 
Any batter is a ^' pour batter '" until it is made so stiff that 
it breaks in the pouring and drops from the spoon. Then 
it is called a drop batter. So long as it is soft enough to be 
beaten it is a batter, but when a spoon can no longer be made 
to go through it easily, with a beating motion, it is a dough. 
Doughs may be of any thickness, from '^ just stiff enough 
to be shaped,^' or ^^ as soft as can be handled easily," to those 
that are so stiff that they may be ^' rolled thin as a wafer.'^ 
It is better to become familiar with the proper consistency 
of batters and doughs by learning these descriptions, than 
to trust to such phrases as these, — ^^ stiff as pound cake,'' 
or ^' soft as ginger-bread," which one often hears. 

Muffin mixtures are thicker than the batters of griddle 
cakes. The general proportion is one scant measure of 
liquid to two full measures of flour. The proportions will 
vary somewhat according to the thickness of the liquid — 
cream, milk, or water — and the thickening quality of the 
meal or flour. 

This lesson shows another way of obtaining carbon dioxide 
gas to lighten batter, namely, by the union of soda with 
molasses. Sugar cane molasses (not syrup) contains acetic 
acid, and when it is mixed properly with soda, carbon dioxide 
gas is liberated,, and the soda is neutralized. 

Carbon dioxide gas may also be obtained by combining 

242 



THICKER BATTERS OR DOUGHS TO BE DROPPED 243 

soda with the lactic acid in sour milk. In using soda with 
any acid, care must be taken to use the correct proportion, 
so that no alkali may be left, as an excess of alkali hinders 
digestion. 

As the amount of acid in sour milk varies, it is difficult 
to know how much soda to use. Sour milk is best when it 
sours quickly and becomes thick and solid. Then the pro- 
portion is one teaspoon of soda to one pint of milk. When 
the milk is so old that it becomes watery and separates, or 
has a mouldy scum on the surface it is unfit to use. 

In winter, milk grows bitter before it sours, and often 
tastes sour but 13 not thick. Then it may be used as if it 
were sweet milk, with baking-powder, or in ginger-bread or 
brown bread where molasses completes the acidity. 

Soda is sometimes dissolved in water, but as part of the 
gas escapes as soon as the soda is wet, a better way is to mix 
the soda with the flour, or other dry ingredients. Soda be- 
comes lumpy in keeping, and should always be pulverized 
finely before it is measured ; then sifted through a fine wire 
strainer, and thoroughly mixed with the flour. When liquid 
is added, the chemical action takes place in the dough, and 
none of the gas is lost, provided the mixture is cooked im- 
mediately. 

Cream of tartar, made from the crystals which collect 
in wine casks, is the most convenient acid to use with soda, 
for it unites with soda only when heated, and the gas there- 
fore is not all liberated until the mixture is in the oven. 
Unless pure cream of tartar is available it is safer to use a 
reliable baking-powder. 

The proportion of soda and acids is as follows : 

1 tsp. soda and 2| tsp. cream of tartar for 1 qt. of flour. 

1 tsp. baking-powder for each cup of flour. 

1 tsp. soda to 1 pt. of thick sour milk. 

8 tsp. soda to 1 e. of molasses for batters. 

I tsp. soda to 1 c. of molasses for stiff doughs. 

Molasses as it is made now, from corn instead of cane 
syrup requires slightly less than one teaspoon of soda for 
each cup. 



244 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

In any recipe where soda is to be used with cream of tartar 
substitute baking-powder in the proportion of one teaspoon 
of baking-powder to each cup of flour or meal. 

Where only a small amount of carbon dioxide gas is 
desired, it is safer to use baking-powder, as it is more ac- 
curately measured than fractions of a spoonful of soda and 
cream of tartar. 

In preparing all batters and soft doughs, which are made 
light with soda and an acid, mix the dry ingredients in one 
bowl; then mix the liquids with the beaten eggs, stir this 
quickly into the dry mixture; add the butter, melted, and 
when these are mixed thoroughly, bake or fry immediately. 

The combined amount of the old measurement of one level 
teaspoon of soda and two slightly rounded teaspoons of 
cream of tartar, and the fraction of cornstarch or rice flour 
which is a necessary ingredient of pure baking-powder, would 
be from four to five level teaspoons. This is the average 
amount for one quart of flour for biscuits, making the amount 
for one cup of flour a trifle more than one level teaspoon. 
Mixtures that are rich in butter require a trifle more, as it 
is harder for the gas to lift up a dough heavy with fat ; and 
those that have eggs to help make them light, require slightly 
less than this proportion. Use always as little as will make 
the dough light, and as flours vary and baking-powders vary, 
the right amount must often be determined by experience. 
Too much baking-powder gives a salty taste, causes doughnuts 
to soak fat, and makes cake too porous. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

Have the pans ready and greased, if necessary, the fire 
in good condition, and all the ingredients at hand before 
you begin to put together. By measuring dry things first, 
then the liquid, one cup will do for all, without washing. 
Beat the eggs in a small bowl and use some of the liquid 
(milk or water) to rinse the egg from the bowl. Measure 
accurately and use every grain of dry material and every 
drop of liquid. Scrape all the dough from the bowl, but 
never scrape the dough from the knife on the edge of the 



THICKER BATTERS OR DOUGHS TO BE DROPPED 245 

pan. Put it into the spoon, and then from the spoon into 
the corner of the pan. Fill the mixing bowl with cold water 
if not ready to wash it immediately, but if an egg-beater be 
used, wipe it at once with a damp cloth and then with a dry 
one. 

Recipe, No. 165. Corn Cake 

1 c. flour. 2 tsp. baking powder. 

^ e. fine yellow corn meal. 1 c. sweet milk ; if sour milk 

J c. sugar. be used, omit the cream of 

I tsp. salt. tartar. 

1 tsp. cream of tartar. 1 egg. 

i tsp. soda (mashed fine) or 2 tbsp. butter or dripping. 

Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly in the order given. 
Add the milk with the egg (well beaten), and the melted 
butter last. Beat well and bake in muffin-pans, or a shallow 
pan in a hot oven about twenty minutes. This cake may be 
made without the egg, and when it is to be eaten with meat 
the egg is unnecessary ; but when this is the most substantial 
part of the meal, the egg should be used. 

Recipe, No. 166. Rye Muffins 

1 c. rye meal (sifted). 2 tsp. baking-powder. 

1 c. white flour. 1 egg, 

i c. sugar. 1 c. milk. 
i tsp. salt. 

Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly. Beat the egg, add 
the milk, and stir quickly into the dry mixture. Bake in 
hot gem pans, twenty-five minutes. 

Recipe, No. 167. Gingerbread 

i c. molasses. 2 tbsp. dripping. 

i tbsp. ginger. J c. boiling water. 

I tsp. salt. 1 c. flour, 
i tsp. soda (scant). 

Sift the ginger, salt, and soda into the molasses ; add the 
dripping softened, beat well, and add the boiling water and 
flour. Beat thoroughly and bake in a shallow pan in a hot 
oven about twenty minutes. 



246 school kitchen textbook 

Recipe, No. 168. Dutch Apple Cake 

Mix one pint of flour, one half teaspoon of salt and three 
teaspoons of baking-powder ; rub in one fourth cup of butter ; 
beat one egg and mix it with one scant cup of milk ; then stir 
this into the dry mixture. The dough should be soft enough 
to spread half an inch thick on a shallow baking pan. Core, 
pare and cut four or five apples into eighths ; lay them in 
parallel rows on top of the dough, the sharp edge down, and 
press enough to make the edge penetrate slightly. Sprinkle 
two tablespoons of sugar on the apple. Bake in a hot oven 
twenty or thirty minutes. Serve it hot with butter, as a tea 
cake, or with lemon sauce as a pudding. 



Recipe, No. 169. Hermits 

One cup each of molasses, butter, sugar and sweet or sour 
milk, one teaspoon each of soda and cinnamon, and one half 
teaspoon each of salt and clove, and a dash of nutmeg. Flour 
to make a drop batter, and one half pound of raisins seeded 
and chopped or quartered. 

Mix the spices and soda with one cup of flour, and flour 
the raisins. Heat the molasses enough to melt the butter, 
add the sugar and milk, then the flour mixture and enough 
more to make a drop batter, then the raisins. Spread the 
dough on a buttered pan about one fourth inch thick, bake 
quickly, and while warm cut into oblongs. 

These are rich and delicious and much more delicate than 
when made with eggs and a stiffer dough. They are better 
when freshly baked. 



Questions on Thick Batters 

What is the consistency of a and liquid in muffin mix- 
thin batter ? tures ? 

What are some of the terms In how many ways may we 

used to designate the thick- use soda in cooking and 

ness of batters ? obtain carbon dioxide? 

What is the proportion of flour How much soda should be 



THICKER BATTERS OR DOUGHS TO BE DROPPED 247 



used with one pint of sour 

milk? 
How much with one teaspoon 

of cream of tartar? 
How much with one cup of 

molasses ? 
Why is it better to mix the soda 

with the flour rather than to 

dissolve it ? 



Why should soda be finely pul- 
verized ? 

What is cooking soda? 

What is cream of tartar ? 

What should be the propor- 
tion of baking-powder to 
one cup of flour? 



LESSON XVI 
DOUGHS TO BE ROLLED 

Soft doughs which are to be cut into shapes should be 
mixed as soft as can be handled easily, then tossed out lightly 
on the floured board until they are well floured, patted with 
the rolling-pin until half an inch thick, then cut with a 
floured, sharp-edged cutter. 

Stiff doughs, which are to be rolled very thin, such as 
wafers and cookies, require about four measures of flour to 
one of liquid. Roll a small portion at a time, with a light, 
quick stroke, not bearing down hard enough to make the 
dough stick. Cut the shapes close together and put the 
scraps with another portion, knead them slightly, to make a 
smooth mass, then roll again. In rolling any soft dough, use 
enough flour to prevent sticking, but no more ; and be sure 
that the dough does not stick. Should it stick to the board 
scrape it off at once before adding more flour. 

Flour the roller, and keep that and the board free from 
lumps of dough. Much time may be saved by dropping soft 
doughs from a teaspoon and allowing them to shape them- 
selves in baking. 

Recipe, No. 170. Soft Molasses Cookies 

I c. molasses. 1 tbsp. warm water. 

I tsp. salt. I c. dripping, softened. 

i tbsp. ginger. Flour to mix soft enough 
J tsp. soda. to be rolled. 

Roll out one third inch thick, cut with a small round cutter, 
and bake about ten minutes. Handle as little as possible 
and do not use much flour. 

248 



DOUGHS TO BE ROLLED 249 

If corn syrup is used, slightly less soda will be required. 

These may be made into balls, and placed some distance 
apart on a greased tin, then flattened with the bottom of a 
round tin box. 



Recipe, No. 171. Wheat Crisps 

J c. cream. § e. fine granulated wheat 

1 tbsp. sugar. flour, or enough to make 

spk. salt. a stiff dough. 

Mix quite stiff, knead well, roll out thin as a wafer, cut 
with a small round cutter, and bake on ungreased tins in a 
very hot oven. 



LESSON XVII 

FRYING DOUGHS 

Frying is cooking in deep hot fat. To be done properly 
there should be fat enough to float the articles to be cooked, 
or in some instances to cover them. Lard and dripping 
may be used, and as they often contain water they should be 
heated until all the water is evaporated. So long as there 
is water in fat it can be made no hotter than boiling water, 
and it will bubble and sputter until the water has all evapor- 
ated. It is useless to attempt to cook anything in fat until 
all bubbling and sputtering have ceased. Clear fat may be 
made very hot, but for cooking purposes it is never boiling 
hot, as some recipes indicate, as it would burn before it reached 
that point. When it smokes in the center as well as on the 
edge it is about 385° Fah. and is hot enough for the quickest 
kind of frying. 

Fat may also be tested with a piece of bread. If it browns 
in forty counts the fat is the right temperature for any food 
which has been previously cooked, as croquettes ; if it 
browns the bread in sixty counts it is right for any un- 
cooked mixture. 

For flour mixtures like doughnuts it is better to test the 
heat with a bit of the mixture. It should rise at once to the 
surface, swell, and begin to brown on the under side. The 
hot fat hardens the gluten in the dough, and forms a crust 
through which the fat cannot penetrate; but if the fat be 
not hot enough, the dough will soak the fat and the cakes 
will be greasy. 

If too great a proportion of soda be used, more than can 
be neutralized, doughnuts will soak the fat. It is not ex- 
travagant to use eggs in doughnuts, as the albumin in the 

250 



FRYING DOUGHS 251 

eggs hardens quickly, and helps to keep out the fat, and thus 
makes them more wholesome. 

Drop cakes, or fried muffins, are mixed soft, and dropped 
from a spoon into the fat, and shape themselves in cooking. 
They will also turn over when half done. Doughnuts are 
mixed stiff, rolled and cut into different shapes, and must 
be turned over in the fat. 

After every frying, as soon as the fat is slightly cooled, 
strain it through a fine cloth into a pail. Never set it away 
to harden in the frying kettle without straining it, for the 
flour or crumbs which settle on the bottom will burn easily 
when it is heated again, and will adhere to anything that 
may be fried in it. 

Recipe, No. 172. Fried Rye Muffins 

1 c. rye meal. J tsp. salt, 
f c. flour. 1 egg. 

2 tsp. baking powder. J c. milk. 
1 tbsp. sugar. 

Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly, beat the egg, add the 
milk^ stir this into the dry mixture. Take up one half 
tablespoon on the end of a spoon, and with a knife scrape 
it into the hot fat. When browned try them with a fork ; 
if the dough does not stick they are done. 

Recipe, No. 173. Doughnuts 

1 pt. flour. f tsp. cinnamon. 
J c. sugar. J to J c. milk. 

i tsp. salt. 1 egg, 

2 tsp. baking powder. 1 tsp. butter (melted). 

Mix in the order given ; add one half cup of milk to the 
beaten egg, and use enough more milk to make the dough as 
soft as can be handled. Take a small portion at a time, 
roll out one third inch thick, and cut with a ring cutter. 
Put the scraps with another portion and roll again. When 
all are rolled, fry in deep hot fat. Turn when brown, and 
when done drain on paper or in a colander. 



252 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 174. Fritters 

Make a batter with the beaten yolk of one egg, one fourth 
cup milk, one half teaspoon salt, and one half teaspoon 
sugar, and Jflour to make almost a drop batter. Let it stand 
twenty minutes, add beaten white, and more flour if needed. 
It is better to make it too stiff at first, for the fruit juices or 
other liquids thin it more or less. 

Dip any large portion of fruit or cooked vegetable, or meat, 
or tripe, into the batter and when coated drop it into hot 
deep fat. Any small or chopped portions may be stirred in 
and dropped from a teaspoon. 



LESSON XVIII 
REVIEW OF DOUGHS 

Recipe, No. 175. Yeast 

1 large potato. 1| tsp. sugar. 

1 tbsp. hops (loose). If tsp. salt. 

1 pt. boiling water. J tsp. ginger. 

IJ tbsp. flour. J yeast cake or J c. yeast. 

Wash, pare, and soak the potato. Steep the hops in the 
water. Mix the flour, sugar, ginger, and salt in a large bowl. 
Grate the potato into the flour mixture. Let the hop water 
boil briskly for one minute, strain it over the potato, and 
mix quickly. If it does not thicken like starch place it over 
the fire for a few moments. If too thick add boiling water 
till thick as cream. When lukewarm or at 70° Fah. add the 
yeast. Raise in a warm place until frothy. Beat it down 
every half hour. Bottle and keep cool. 

Recipe, No. 176. Sour Milk Doughnuts 

1^ c. sour milk. 1 tsp. soda. 

§ c. thick sour cream. 1 tsp. salt. 

1 c. powdered sugar. } tsp. cinnamon, scant. 

2 eggs. 6 to 8 c. flour. 

Sift the flour into a pan, use six cups at first; add salt, 
soda and spice ; beat eggs very light ; add sour milk and 
cream ; mix and then stir in the flour mixture ; add enough 
more flour to make a dough that may be rolled. Mix well, 
roll one third inch thick, cut in rings and let them stand for 
an hour, or longer if you have time. Cover with bread cloth. 
Fry in hot fat, and when partly cool roll in powdered sugar. 

Always use powdered sugar in the dough ; in putting the 
doughnuts into the fat have the side that was on top for the 

253 



254 



SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



underside. This side has dried a little in rising and will be 
less liable to absorb fat, and the dough will rise better than 
if the dried side were on top. 



Questions on Soft Doughs 



What is the consistency of a 
thin batter ? 

y/hat are some of the terms 
used to designate the thick- 
ness of batters? 

What is the proportion of flour 
and liquid in muffin mix- 
tures ? 

In how many ways may we 
use soda in cooking and 
obtain carbon dioxide? 

How much soda should be 
used with one pint of sour 
milk? 

How much with one teaspoon 
of cream of tartar? 

How much with one cup of 
molasses ? 



Why is it better to mix the 
soda with the flour rather 
than to dissolve it ? 

Why should soda be finely 
pulverized ? 

What is cooking soda? 

What is cream of tartar? 

What should be the propor- 
tion of baking-powder to 
one cup of flour? 

How would you roll soft 
doughs ? 

What is frying ? 

What kinds of fat may be used ? 

How may you tell when fat is 
hot enough for frying ? 

Why should fried food be 
drained ? 



LESSON XIX 






BREAD 






CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 


BREAD 




Water Protein Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Ash 


Bread, White . . . 35.3 9.2 1.3 


53.1 


1.1 


Crackers, Soda . . 5.9 9.8 9.1 


73.1 


2.1 



Bread is a form of food made from the meal or flour of 
certain grains. 

The word is derived from the verb '^ to bray or pound/' 
expressive of the old method of preparing the grain. Bread 
is therefore made of something brayed, as brayed wheat or 
corn. The brayed grain is moistened and made into dough. 
Various substances are used to raise the dough, and the 
raised mass is stiffened by the heat in cooking, and thus 
held in shape, becomes a loaf. 

Bread is made principally from wheat flour, because 
wheat is the only grain which contains the right proportion 
of gluten essential to the making of light, spongy bread. 
Rye used alone makes a moist, close, sticky bread. Corn 
meal alone makes too dry and crumbly a loaf, but either of 
these grains may be used to advantage with wheat. 

The gluten of wheat is a tough, gray, elastic substance 
and will swell to four or five times its original bulk. Wheat 
also contains a large amount of starch and considerable 
mineral matter. When the whole of the nutritious part is 
used, wheat is the most useful food we have, but fine white 
flour contains only a part of the nutriment. 

Bread is sometimes made by using soda and an acid to 
make the dough light ; but these mixtures are usually baked 
in small forms, and called biscuit, or muffins. In all these 

255 



256 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

methods there is no chemical change in the flour, as the dough 
is simply made light by the gas from the soda. 

But the perfect loaf of light spongy bread is made by the 
addition of something which produces fermentation and 
causes chemical changes in the flour. 

Yeast is a minute form of plant life and when introduced 
into any substance which is rich in sugar, starch, or gluten, 
and exposed to air, warmth, and moisture, causes fermenta- 
tion, which produces new compounds. 

There are several kinds of fermentation, — lactic fermen- 
tation, which causes milk to sour; alcoholic fermentation, 
which is illustrated by the changes juices undergo in the 
making of wine, cider, and beer ; acetic fermentation, which 
is caused by too prolonged alcoholic fermentation, as in 
making vinegar from cider. 

Alcoholic fermentation produces carbon dioxide gas, which 
has no unpleasant taste and is, therefore, the kind of fermen- 
tation best suited for bread-making, the object being not to 
produce alcohol, but to puff up the dough and make the 
bread light. 

Wheat flour contains starch and gluten, and a ferment 
called diastase, and if moistened and kept warm it would 
change in time or ferment ; but when this change takes place 
slowly the dough will be sour. This change may be hastened 
by the addition of yeast. 

Yeast, in its natural state, when viewed under the micro- 
scope, is found to be a plant of the fungus tribe, of which 
mould and mildew are familiar forms. It is one of the 
simplest and smallest forms of vegetable life, and is made 
up of cells which contain liquid or sap. These cells are 
found in fruit juices and sprouting grains, and they expand 
rapidly when exposed to air and moisture, and start the 
decomposition of the sugar in the grain or fruit. 

To make yeast, grains which contain starch and gluten 
are moistened and left for the yeast cells to grow. Fermen- 
tation is checked after a time and the product is prepared 
in various ways for keeping and sold under the forms of dry, 
liquid, and compressed yeast. 

The life of the yeast cells is not destroyed and they will 



BREAD 257 

grow again when exposed to warmth and moisture, and 
supphed with food; the same as other forms of vegetable 
life, after being kept for a time, will grow when planted in 
proper soil. 

The temperature of boiling water will kill the yeast plant, 
and so in using yeast, it is necessary to have the proper 
temperature. 

In making bread, put the yeast into the flour ; moisten it ; 
keep it warm, and thus provide the food and conditions 
necessary to waken the yeast plant into life again. The 
yeast cells begin to grow in the dough, thus causing a change 
in the flour. 

The diastase ferments and causes some of the starch to change 
into a kind of sugar, and the sugar changes into carbon dioxide 
gas and alcohol. In converting the starch into sugar in the 
dough, there is no change evident to the eye ; but as soon as 
the sugar is changed to carbon dioxide gas and alcohol, large 
bubbles of gas appear. The gas, being lighter than the dough, 
rises, and in its efforts to escape, puffs up the gluten, and as 
the gluten is elastic it can stretch to several times its original 
bulk. It is on account of this peculiar tenacity or power of 
the wheat gluten to hold the gas that wheat flour makes the 
lightest bread. The gas fills the dough with minute air cells, 
which — should the yeast have been mixed uniformly mth 
the flour — make it light and spongy. When this expansion 
has reached the desired limit, — that is, before the alcoholic 
fermentation has changed to the acetic and soured the dough, 
or the tough, glutinous walls of the air cells are broken, 
making large, unequal holes, — check the fermentation by 
baking the dough in a hot oven. The alcohol escapes into 
the oven ; the starch is swollen and ruptured, and absorbs 
water. Some of the starch is changed to gum and forms 
the crust, which by the intense heat assumes a brown color. 

In yeast bread the chemical change in some of the starch is 
similar to the change which takes place in starch during 
digestion, namely, its conversion into sugar. This gives a 
sweet, nutty flavor and a light, spongy texture, both different 
from those of soda bread. It is, when properly made and 
baked, usually considered the most wholesome form of bread. 



LESSON XX 
THE HEAT FOR BAKING 

The heat of the oven for baking is a difficult matter for a 
beginner to determine. There are no fixed rules that can 
be followed strictly in every case. Testing the heat by a 
thermometer is not always practicable. Testing by the 
length of time one can bear the hand in the oven will vary 
with every hand that tries it. Much depends upon the 
construction of the stove, the condition of the fire, and the 
nature of the fuel. Learn to judge of the oven in this stove, 
but another may be different, and the same rules will not 
apply to both. 

Experience is the best teacher, and by care in observing 
and comparing results, much may be learned. Study care- 
fully your own stove, and remember which kinds of fuel 
give a quick, flashing fire, and which a steady, long-continued 
heat. Observe the amount of fuel needed to produce greater 
or less heat in the oven. Learn how to increase the heat 
quickly or gradually, or to diminish it as the case may re- 
quire ; also how to detect the difference between a fire that 
is bright red on top, but all ashes underneath, and one that 
is a solid bed of glowing coals. Test the oven by opening 
the door quickly, and notice how the heat puffs out into 
your face, or see how long you can keep your hand in the 
oven. 

Compare the heat when there is a quick, blazing fire and 
all the draughts are open, with that when there is a large 
body of fire and the dampers are closed, and still again with 
that when there is but little fire. In this way make your 
own standard of a very hot, a hot, and a moderate oven. 

The general rules are as follows : 

258 



THE HEAT FOR BAKING 259 

Rolls, biscuit, breakfast-cakes, puff paste, game, and 
small pieces of meat, require a very hot oven, and quick 
baking, — half an hour or less. Have a bright fresh fire of 
clear glowing coals, all through. 

Large pieces of meat and poultry require a very hot oven 
at first, but after five or ten minutes check the fire. Have 
sufficient body to the fire to last the required time without 
replenishing, or if that be impossible, add a little fuel often 
that the heat may be kept uniform. 

Bread, pastry, and fish require a hot oven ; 

Cakes, ginger-bread, and puddings, a moderate oven. 

Flour mixtures and other things that have to rise in the 
oven, require heat from underneath to help in the rising, 
and should be placed on the bottom of the oven, with the 
rack underneath, if there be danger of burning. If the oven 
be too hot on the top they will brown before rising. A pan 
of water on the middle rack, or a paper hood over the pan, 
will prevent them from browning too fast. 

Crease a piece of stiff paper on each end so that the edges 
will rest on the oven bottom, and the top of the paper will 
be at least an inch above the cake. 

Meat requires more heat above than below, and should be 
placed on a rack in the pan, with another pan underneath 
to prevent burning the fat. In some stoves the heat may be 
turned away from the bottom of the oven. Small pieces of 
meat, scalloped dishes, and other things which require only a 
browning of the surface, may be placed on the rack near the 
top of the oven. 

Until you have learned by experience how to regulate the 
fire and oven, it is better to look at things as they are baking, 
and turn and watch till you are sure they can be left without 
further care. But look for only an instant at a time. Cul- 
tivate the habit of opening and shutting the oven door quickly 
but gently. 

Recipe, No. 177. Bread 

1 c. water or milk (lukewarm). J c. yeast or i yeast cake dis- 
i tsp. salt. solved in J c. water. 

J tsp. sugar. 3 to 3i c. flour. 



260 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Put the salt, sugar, and yeast into the mixing bowl, add 
the water, and when the sugar is dissolved add about three 
cups of the flour and mix with a knife. Add more flour till stiff 
enough to knead. Turn it out on a floured board, and knead 
until it is soft and elastic and can be worked without any 
flour. Put it back in the bowl, cover with a cloth and tin 
cover, and let it rise in a warm place (80° Fah.) till double its 
bulk (overnight in winter, three or four hours in summer). 
When light, work it over in the bowl, doubhng it over from 
the edges to the center of the bowl until smooth. Let it 
rise again till double its bulk, then divide into two parts, 
shape into round or long loaves, or into biscuit. Once more 
let it rise, closely covered, till double its bulk. Bake in a 
hot oven (400° Fah. or 12 seconds by the hand). 

One third white flour and two thirds brown flour may be 
used in the same way, but without kneading. Brown flour 
means any good flour prepared from the whole grain. 

Recipe, No. 178. Graham or Wheat Meal Bread (No 

Kneading) 

Dissolve half a yeast cake in one fourth cup warm water, 
add one cup warm milk, half teaspoon salt, one teaspoon 
sugar, and white flour sufficient to make a batter that breaks 
when you pour it. Let this rise an hour, or until light, keep- 
ing the pan in a bowl of warm water, hot enough to bear 
the hand. Then stir in fine, granulated wheat, or sifted 
Graham meal, or entire wheat flour, until the dough will keep 
up round when you stop mixing. 

Mix it with a knife until smooth, then raise again until 
double its bulk. Cut it down, turn out, and shape into a 
long, thin loaf with as little kneading as possible. Let it 
rise in the pan until double ; then bake in a hot oven about 
forty minutes. 

Recipe, No. 179. Milk Bread 

When milk is used in making bread, scald the milk in a 
double boiler ; then cool it until lukewarm, and proceed as 
directed for water bread. 



THE HEAT FOE BAKING 



261 



TIME-TABLE 

Baking Bread, Cake, and Puddings 



Loaf bread . , 


40 to 60 m. 


Bread pudding . . . . 1 hr. 


Rolls, biscuit . . 


10 to 20 " 


Rice and tapioca . . . 1 ** 


Graham gems 


30 " 


Indian pudding . 2 to 3 " 


Ginger-bread . 


20 to 30 " 


Plum ': . . 2 to 3 " 


Sponge cake . 


45 to 60 " 


Custards . . . . 15 to 20 m 


Plain '' . 


30 to 40 '' 


Steamed brown bread . 3 hrs 


Fruit " . 


. 2 to 3 hrs. 


Steamed puddings 1 to 3 '* 


Cookies . . . 


. 10 to 15 m. 


Pie crust . . . about 30 m 



LESSON XXI 
REVIEW OF BREAD 



What is the meaning of bread ? 
From what grains is bread 

made? 
Why does wheat make the best 

bread ? 
What is gluten ? 
What is fermentation? 
How is bread dough made 

Hght? 
How many kinds of fermenta- 
tion? 
What is yeast? 
What conditions are necessary 

to enable yeast to grow in 

flour? 
What change takes place in 

the flour when yeast is 

added to dough? 
How can we tell when dough 

is raised enough? 



What happens if it should rise 

too long? 
Why do we bake bread ? 
What foods require to be 

baked in a very hot oven ; 

a hot oven; a moderate 

oven? 
What kind of fire do we need 

for quick baking ? 
What for baking meat ? 
What for baking puddings? 
What is pastry ? 
How do you make plain pastry ? 
What would you do if any- 
thing baked too rapidly? 
What are the objections to 

pastry as food? 
Can it be made in a wholesome 

manner ? 



I 



262 



LESSON XXII 
FISH 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Fish Water Protein Fat Ash 

Salmon 51.2 14.6 9.5 0.9 

Mackerel 43.7 11.4 3.5 .7 

Bluefish 40.3 9.8 0.6 .7 

Shad 39.6 10.3 5.4 .8 

Herring 37.3 10.0 5.9 .8 

HaUbut 61.9 15.1 4.4 .9 

Cod 58.5 10.6 0.2 .8 

Haddock ....... 40.0 8.2 0.2 .6 

Whitefish 39.4 12.5 3.6 .9 

Bass 40.1 11.5 1.3 .7 

Flounder 35.8 6.3 0.3 .6 

Salt Cod 40.3 16.0 0.4 1.2 

Boneless Codfish 54.4 22.1 0.3 1.7 



Water 


Protein 


HaHbut 


Boneless Cod 


Cod 


Salt Cod 


Boneless Cod Halibut 


Salmon 


Salmon 


Mackerel 


Whitefish 


Bluefish 


Bass 


Salt Cod 


Mackerel 


Bass 


Cod 


Haddock 


Shad 


Shad 


Herring 


Whitefish 


Bluefish 


Herring 


Haddock 


Flounder 


Flounder 



Fat 

Salmon 

Herring 

Shad 

Halibut 

Whitefish 

Mackerel 

Bass 

Bluefish 

Salt Cod 
J Boneless Cod 
\ Flounder 
/Cod 
\ Haddock 



Ash 

f Salmon 
{ Hahbut 
[ Whitefish 

Shad 

Herring 

Cod 

Mackerel 

Bluefish 

Bass 

Boneless Cod 

Haddock 

Flounder 

Salt Cod 



Fish, on account of its abundance, cheapness, and whole- 
someness, is invaluable as an article of food. It is pound for 
pound less nutritious and less stimulating than meat, but is 

263 



264 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

rich in phosphorus and has a large proportion of protein. 
The white varieties, Hke flounder, halibut, cod, and haddock, 
have the oil in the liver, and are the cheapest and most 
digestible. Red-blooded fish, like salmon, mackerel, and 
bluefish, have the oil distributed through the body, and the 
flesh is dark. The latter are nutritious for those who can 
digest them, but they are too rich and oily for invalids. 

Fish should be as fresh as possible, otherwise it may prove 
poisonous, and if not thoroughly cooked it will be hard to 
digest. The flesh of good fresh fish is firm and hard ; if not 
fresh it will be soft and flabby. 

Fish, after being dressed at the market, should be cleaned 
by scraping, if necessary, and by wiping with a cloth wet in 
cold salted water. Do not sprinkle with salt until ready to 
cook the fish. As they are slippery to handle, dip the fingers 
into salt while dressing them. 

Fish may be cooked in a variety of ways, but broiling 
and baking are the most wholesome methods. Small fish 
and pieces of large, white fish are good if fried, but oily fish 
should never be fried. 

TIME-TABLE FOR BAKING 

Fish, 6 to 8 lbs. ; long, thin fish 1 h. 

Fish, 4 to 6 lbs. ; thick hahbut 1 h. 

Fish, small 20 to 30 m. 

Recipe, No. 180. Baked Fish 

Cod, haddock, bluefish, small salmon, bass, and shad, 
may be stuffed and baked whole. 

Clean, wipe, and dry the fish, rub with salt, fill with stuffing, 
and sew the edges together. Cut gashes two inches apart 
on each side. Put narrow strips of fat salt pork into the 
gashes and in the pan under the fish. Place the fish upright 
in the pan by propping it up with potatoes, or by skewering 
the head one way and the tail the other. Dredge the fish 
with flour. Put it into a hot oven without water ; when the 
flour is brown, baste with the pork fat, and baste often. It is 
done when the flesh separates easily from the bone. Remove 



FISH 265 

It carefully to a hot platter, draw out the strings or skewers, 
and serve with drawn butter or egg sauce. 

Thick pieces of halibut or cod may be stuffed, or not, and 
baked in the same way. Fish may also be baked in milk 
enough to cover the bottom of the pan. When cooked in 
this way no pork or flour is needed. The milk keeps the fish 
moist, and makes it brown better. It is a good substitute 
for pork, especially for any dry, white fish. 



Recipe, No. 181. Stuffing for Baked Fish 

Weighing from four to six pounds 

1 c. cracker crumbs. 1 tsp. chopped parsley. 

J tsp. salt. ' 1 tsp. capers. 

J tsp. pepper. 1 tsp. pickles. 

1 tsp. chopped onion. J c. melted butter. 

This makes a dry, crumbly stuffing. If a moist stuffing 
be desired, moisten the crackers with cold water, or use stale 
(not dried) bread crumbs, and moisten with one beaten egg 
and the butter. 

It is not necessary to have all the seasoning given in the 
recipe, but some acid, like pickles, lemon, or vinegar, is more 
agreeable than sweet herbs, in a stuffing for fish. 



LESSON XXIII 

BOILED FISH 

TIME-TABLE FOR BOILING 

Halibut and salmon in cubical form, per lb 15 m. 

Blue-fish, bass, etc., per lb. 10 m. 

Cod, haddock, and small fish, per lb 6 m. 

Recipe, No. 182. Boiled Fish 

To boil, without breaking, fish should be of uniform thick- 
ness. A small salmon, or the middle cut of a large one, or 
the thickest part of cod or blue-fish, or a thick piece of halibut, 
should be selected for boiling. 

The most economical way is to cook the fish in a steamer 
over boiling water. If that is not convenient, put the fish 
in a wire basket, or on a plate, and the plate in a square of 
cloth ; when done lift cloth, plate, and fish together. Put 
the fish into boiling salted water, and let it simmer (not boil) 
till done. The time will vary with the shape of the fish. 
Boiled fish should be well drained and be served with a rich 
sauce. 

Recipe, No. 183. Drawn-butter Sauce for Fish 

1 pt. hot water or milk. | tsp. salt. 

§ c. butter, scant. J tsp. pepper. 

4 tbsp. flour. 

Put half the butter in a saucepan ; be careful not to let it 
become brown ; when melted add the dry flour, and mix well. 
Add the hot water, a little at a time, and stir rapidly as it 
thickens. When perfectly smooth add the remainder of the 
butter, one small piece at a time, and stir till it is absorbed. 

266 



BOILED FISH 267 

Add the salt and pepper. When carefully made, this sauce 
should be free from lumps ; but if not smooth, strain it before 
serving. Add two hard-cooked eggs chopped or sliced. 

Recipe, No. 184. Fish Chowder 

4 or 5 lb. cod or haddock or 1 tbsp. salt. 

bass. i tsp. white pepper. 

6 potatoes. 2 tbsp. butter. 

A 2-in. cube of fat salt pork. 1 qt. milk. 

2 small onions. 6 butter crackers. 

When buying the fish have the head and skin removed, and 
the flesh taken off in a long strip from each side of the 
backbone. Pick out all the fine bones and cut each half of 
the fish in four or five pieces. 

Cook the fish bones and head half an hour, then strain the 
water. Cut the salt pork and onion into dice and fry until 
light brown. Slice the potatoes, scald them five minutes, 
pour off the water, add the strained pork fat, and the bone 
water. When boiling add the fish, simmer ten minutes, or 
until the potatoes are tender. Add the seasoning and one 
pint of the milk. Make a white sauce with the butter, two 
tablespoons of flour and the other pint of milk, and stir it 
in carefully. Serve with crackers. 

Questions on Fish 

Why is fish a valuable food ? What kinds of fish may be 

How does fish compare with baked? 

meat ? Which are best broiled ; fried ; 

How do the white varieties of boiled? 

fish differ from the dark or How do you prepare fish for 

red-blooded fish? frying? 

Which are better for invahds? Why is it necessary to have 

What is the test for the fresh- the fat smoking hot? 

ness of fish ? How do you make a fish 

How may salt cod be used ? chowder ? 



LESSON XXIV 
EGGS 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 

Water Protein Fat Ash 

65.5 13.1 9.3 0.9 

Some people consider it extravagant to use many eggs 
in cooking. It is extravagant to use them unnecessarily, 
that is, to use four in a place where one would answer the 
same purpose, as in muffins or corn cake, or to use them in the 
ways in which we get the least good from them, as in rich, 
heavy cake, or to use them freely in the season when they cost 
the most. But when the price is low, they may be used 
in any of the simple ways of boiling, poaching, etc., or in 
plain cake and custards and other wholesome combinations. 

Eggs are nutritious and contain valuable food stuffs, 
being rich in protein and mineral matters, but are deficient 
in carbohydrates. These may be supplied by using bread, 
rice, milk or butter with them. 

The shells of newly-laid eggs are almost full, but as the 
shells are porous, on exposure to the air the water inside 
evaporates, and the eggs grow lighter, while air entering in 
fills the place of the water, and causes the elements in the 
egg to change, and the eggs soon spoil. This explains why a 
good fresh egg is heavy and will sink in water, and why a 
stale egg is lighter, has a rattling or gurgling sound, and 
floats in the water. 

Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place and carefully, 
as any jarring motion may rupture the membrane which 
separates the white from the yolk, and if they become 
mixed, the egg spoils quickly. Anything which will entirely 
exclude the air from the eggs will help to keep them. 

268 



EGGS 269 



PRESERVING EGGS 

Dissolve one and one half quarts of water-glass in eighteen 
of boiled water. Stir until thoroughly dissolved. Water- 
glass is a chemical solution which may be procured at any 
drug-store and costs about twenty cents a quart. Provide 
two eight-gallon stone jars. These will hold thirty dozen 
eggs. Secure eggs that are perfectly clean and fresh ; and 
laid in the spring. Do not wash them. Put the eggs in the 
liquid mixture and pack as closely as possible. Add them 
in small or large numbers until within two inches of the top 
of the liquid. Cover the jars to prevent evaporation and 
keep them in a cool place. 

Do not take the eggs from the liquid until just before 
using. They will keep a long time, and if fresh when put 
in, will be fresh when used. They may be used in any 
way for cooking but should not be eaten as boiled, poached 
or '^ raw " eggs. 



Recipe, No. 185. Omelet 

2 eggs. i tsp. salt. 

2 tbsp. milk. i tsp. pepper. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs till light-colored and creamy; 
add the milk, salt, and pepper. Beat the whites until they 
are stiff and dry. Cut and fold them lightly into the yolks 
until just covered. Have a clean smooth omelet pan or small 
spider. When hot, rub it round the edge with one teaspoon 
of butter on a broad knife; let the butter run all over the 
pan, and when bubbling turn in the omelet quickly and 
spread it evenly on the pan. Lift the pan from the hottest 
part of the fire and cook carefully, until slightly browned 
underneath. Put it on the oven grate to dry but not to 
brown on the top. When dry in the center run a knife 
round the edge, then under the half nearest the handle and 
fold over toward the right. Hold the edge of a hot platter 
against the lower edge of the pan, and invert the omelet 
upon the platter. 



270 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 186. Egg Vermicelli 

Separate the yolk from the white of hard-boiled eggs. 
Chop the white fine, and mix it with a little hot milk or thin 
white sauce. Season with salt and pepper, pour it on toast, 
and rub the yolk through a strainer over the top. 



Recipe, No. 187. Mocha Custard 

Put one cup of strong, clear coffee and one pint of milk in 
the double boiler and let them scald. Beat the yolks of six 
eggs till light, add one half cup of sugar and one eighth 
teaspoon of salt, and when well mixed stir in the hot milk. 
Turn back into the double boiler and stir constantly until 
thick like cream. Cool quickly and stir frequently while 
cooling. Turn into frappe glasses, filling them three fourths 
full. Sweeten one cup of thick cream with powdered sugar, 
flavor with a few drops of vanilla, surround the bowl with 
ice water and whip it with an egg beater till thick. Heap it 
lightly on the custard and serve with cake made with the 
whites of the eggs. 

Questions on Eggs 

When is it extravagant to use Why is a fresh egg heavier 
eggs? than a stale egg? 

What should be eaten with Does it injure eggs to handle 
eggs ? them roughly even if the shell 

is not broken? 



LESSON XXV 
CAKE MAKING AND BAKING 

It is not advisable to give much time or attention to cake 
making in these lessons. There is little danger that this 
branch of cooking will be neglected; and gratifying as it 
would be to school girls generally, to make cake in every 
lesson, there are so many more important things to learn 
that this subject must be kept in the background. 

There are really only two kinds of cake, — those with 
butter and those without. If the correct methods of mixing 
and the principles of baking are understood, any reliable 
recipe may be used successfully. The principles underlying 
the making of batters and doughs apply equally to cake 
making, but in the latter greater amounts of butter and sugar 
are used. 

Butter cakes, or those made with butter, include all the 
varieties of cup-cake, pound cake, fruit-cake, and the like. 
There are two ways of mixing. First, soften the butter and 
rub it until creamy, add the sugar and beat thoroughly ; beat 
the yolks until light-colored and thick ; then beat them into 
sugar and butter. Mix the soda, cream of tartar, or baking- 
powder, and spice with the flour ; add milk and flour alter- 
nately, beating well ; add the whites beaten stiff. All 
butter cakes should be beaten, before being poured into the 
pan, until smooth and fine-grained. If fruit is used, flour 
it well to keep it from sticking and add with the flour. 

The second and easier way of mixing plain cake is similar 
to that of mixing breakfast cakes. Put the flour in the mix- 
ing bowl, and sift and mix with it the soda, cream of tartar, or 
baking-powder and spice. Add the sugar and mix thor- 
oughly. Beat the yolks, add the milk, and stir this into the 

271 



272 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

flour mixture. Then stir in the butter melted, and the stiffly 
beaten whites last, and beat all together vigorously, just 
before putting it into the pans. 

Sponge Cakes. These are made without butter, and 
when quite rich contain only eggs, sugar, flavoring, and 
flour. A less expensive kind is made by using some liquid, 
usually water, and more flour, and substituting soda and 
cream of tartar or baking-powder for part of the eggs. In 
mixing, beat the yolks of the eggs until light and thick, add 
the sugar, flavoring, and water, then the flour mixed with the 
soda and cream of tartar or baking-powder, and lastly the 
beaten whites of the eggs. When only eggs, sugar, and 
flour are used, there must be vigorous beating of the yolks 
and sugar, and no beating at all after the whites and flour are 
added, — only a mixing of the ingredients. 

Baking Cake. Do not attempt to make cake unless you 
can have entire control of the fire. It should be rather low, 
but sufficient to heat the oven moderately, and to last with- 
out replenishing through the entire baking. Thin cakes 
require a hotter oven than those baked in thick loaves. 
Cakes made with baking-powder or soda and cream of 
tartar should bake more quickly than pound cake or sponge 
cake made light with eggs alone. Cakes with molasses in 
them require a quick oven, but as they burn quickly they 
must be baked with care. Whichever kind you are baking, 
ascertain from the time-table the time required and divide 
it into quarters. Look at it quickly, within five minutes. 
During the first quarter of the time the cake should merely 
rise and not brown. If it brown before rising, the oven is 
too hot and must be cooled. 

It should continue to rise on the edges during the second 
quarter and begin to brown in spots. 

In the third quarter it should rise in the center and become 
all over a rich golden brown, and perhaps crack a little in 
the middle. If the dough boils up out of the crack the oven 
is too hot, and if it remains up too much flour has been used, 
for in the last quarter it should settle to a level, brown in 
the crack, and shrink from the pan. 

During the first and second quarter the cake may be moved 



CAKE MAKING AND BAKING 273 

carefully if necessary, but in the third quarter, or when it is 
fully risen but not stiffened by the heat, there is danger of 
its falling, if moved, or if the oven door is slammed. Pro- 
tect it by a piece of stiff paper, creased on each end that the 
edges may rest on the oven bottom with the top an inch above 
the cake. 

Cake is done when it shrinks from the pan and stops 
hissing, or when a straw inserted in the center comes out 
clean. 

Loosen the edges of the cake with a knife and turn the 
pan over carefully upon a cloth laid over a bread cooler or 
sieve, leaving the cake top-side up. 



Recipe, No. 188. Plain Cake 

J c. butter. 1 tsp. baking-powder. 

1 c. sugar. 1^ c. flour. 

2 eggs. I tsp. spice, or 
§ c. milk. I tsp. flavoring. 

See that the fire and oven are right and have all the 
ingredients at hand. Line the pans mth buttered paper. 
Mix the baking-powder and spice with the flour. Sepa- 
rate the eggs. Measure the butter, rub it until creamy, 
add the sugar, and in scraping out the sugar take all the butter 
that has adhered to the cup. Beat until the sugar is dis- 
solved ; add the well-beaten yolks and the flavoring. Rinse 
out the yolk with the milk, then add milk and flour alter- 
nately, and the whites, beaten to a stiff froth, last. Beat 
well ; bake in a shallow pan about twenty minutes, or until 
it shrinks from the pan. 

Vary the cake by adding one half cup currants, or nuts 
chopped fine, or by coloring a part with dark spices or choco- 
late. 

Recipe, No. 189. Water Sponge Cake 

1 egg. 3 tbsp. cold water. 

i c. sugar. f c. flour. 

I tsp. lemon juice. 1 tsp. baking-powder. 



274 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Beat the yolk of the egg, add the sugar and beat again, 
add the lemon juice and water, then the flour in which the 
baking-powder has been mixed, and lastly the whites beaten 
stiff. Bake in a small shallow pan, or in scalloped tins. 

Recipe, No. 190. Frosting 

1 c. powdered sugar. 1 tbsp. lemon juice 

1 tbsp. boiling water. (not extract). 

Mix well and add a few drops more of boiling water until 
it is thin enough to settle when you stop stirring. 

A little melted chocolate may be used to give variety. 



LESSON XXVI 
LOBSTERS 

Markets are now so well supplied with tkese delicious 
shell-fish that they may be obtained in good condition all 
the year. Lobsters are put alive into boiling salted water 
and cooked twenty minutes from the time the water boils. 
The shells are dark green when the lobsters are alive, but 
turn bright red when cooking. 

Boiled lobsters should not be eaten until cold and should 
never be kept more than eighteen hours after boiling. 

Select lobsters from one to two pounds in weight and well 
filled out with meat. Lobsters with thin shells and that 
rattle when shaken are generally watery, but those that are 
heavy in proportion to their size, and have hard, solid shells 
streaked with black will be found full of meat. 

* 
Recipe, No. 191. To Prepare Lobster 

After the lobster is boiled, and when it is cold enough 
to handle, wipe off all the scum which adheres to the shell, 
twist off the large claws, and if the shells are thin cut a 
strip from the sharp edge, using a strong, sharp knife ; then 
break the shell apart and take the meat out whole. If it is 
too thick to be cut in this way, hold the claw on the edge 
of the table and break it with a mallet, being careful not to 
crush the meat. Pick the meat out from the joints. Twist 
off the small claws and lay them aside for garnishing. With 
a sort of sidewise twist, break the tail away from the body, 
thus avoiding any spattering or loss of the liver. 

If the tail shell is to be used, cut through the inner portion 
and remove the meat, but if not needed for this purpose, lay 

275 



276 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

the tail on one side and crush in with your hand. This will 
snap the inner part of the shell and allow you to remove the 
meat easily. Lay the outer muscle back from the middle 
and take out the intestinal vein, which runs the whole length 
and terminates in a sack at the end. Sometimes it can be 
plainly seen by its dark color and sometimes it is almost 
invisible, but it is always there. 

Now stand the body on its head, insert both thumbs 
into the opening with the right hand against the back shell 
and the left against the under side ; pull it apart gently and 
leave the stomach in the right hand shell. Shake out all of 
the green liver and scrape out any of the thick white juice. 
On the sides of the body portion are the feathery gills or lungs, 
which should be carefully removed. Break the body through 
the middle and pick out all the meat which lies between the 
fine bones ; it is the choicest morsel in the whole lobster. 
If there is any coral save it for garnishing. The only por- 
tions which are not edible are the stomach, lungs, and the 
intestinal vein. The bones may be washed and dried to use 
in baking the prepared meat, or they may be covered with 
cold water and boiled and the liquor used to give color and 
flavor to soup. 

Recipe, No. 192. Plain Lobster 

Cut the meat into s'mall pieces and mix the liver with it ; 
dry the coral and rub it through a strainer over the meat. 
Serve with vinegar, melted butter, or with cold slaw dressing ; 
or mash the liver to a smooth paste, season it with salt and 
pepper. Thin it with oil or melted butter and vinegar and 
pour it over the lobster. 

Recipe, No. 193. Fricasseed or Creamed Lobster 

Prepare the lobster and chop fine. For one cup of lobster 
put two tablespoons butter into a shallow frying pan ; add 
the lobster, a dash of cayenne pepper and one fourth cup 
medium cream. Mix well as it heats ; add two tablespoons 
vinegar and serve very hot. Vinegar will not curdle the 
cream, but do not use vinegar with milk. 



LOBSTERS 277 

Recipe, No. 194. Salt Fish Balls 

- 1 c. potatoes. J egg. 

i c. salt fish. spk. pepper. 

1 tsp. butter. Fat for frying. 

Wash the fish and shred it into half -inch pieces. Pare the 
potatoes, and if large cut into quarters. Put the potatoes 
and fish in a stew-pan and cover with boiling water. Cook 
twenty-five minutes, or until potatoes are soft. Drain very 
dry, mash fine, add butter, seasoning, and beaten egg. Beat 
well, shape on a spoon, drop into smoking hot fat, fry till 
brown and drain on paper. 

The same mixture may be cooked as hash. 



!l 



LESSON XXVII 
FOOD FOR INVALIDS 

When we are well and strong, we need food to keep us so, 
and also to give us force or energy to do work. 

When we work we wear out faster, and so need more food. 
We need a variety of food, — some kinds that are digested 
quickly and some that are digested slowly, for if everything 
we ate were changed at once we would be faint and hungry 
again very soon. 

But when we are ill, sometimes we do not need any food 
for a time, as it is better for the system to have a period of 
complete rest or comparative inaction. At other times, 
we need only a small quantity of food, just enough to satisfy 
hunger; but that little must be food that can be digested 
easily, or that will reduce inflammation and quench thirst, 
but will not stimulate. Food in a liquid form is quickly 
absorbed into the system. Acid, aromatic and soothing 
drinks, oranges, grapes, and other fruits, gelatinous broths 
and jellies, and starchy gruels are useful at such times. 

COOKING AND CARING FOR INVALIDS 

In waiting upon invalids, several things are essential 
besides the careful preparation of their food, — perfect 
ventilation, cleanliness, quiet, and strict obedience to the 
physician's orders. 

Have plenty of fresh air and sunshine, but be careful 
to shield the patient from a draught and any glaring light. 
Allow nothing in the room that will vitiate the air, — like 
decaying flowers, kerosene lamps burning low, and soiled 
clothing. Keep the bed, the patient, the room, and every- 
thing about yourself, absolutely clean. Avoid all noise, 

278 



FOOD FOR INVALIDS 279 

whispering, loud talking, rustling, or any abrupt or suspicious 
movements. Admit no visitors except with the consent of 
the physician. 

Anticipate the needs of the patient, but do not annoy by 
unnecessary attentions. When feeding the patient, do it 
gently and neatly. Serve food in small quantities, often, 
and in varied and tempting forms. 

Serve hot, liquids ordered to be served hot, and avoid 
slopping. When the meal is over, remove every trace of 
food from the room. 

Recipe, No. 195. Milk Porridge 

1 c. raisins. 2 tbsp. flour. 

2 c. milk. I tsp. salt. 

Boil the raisins in a little water twenty minutes. Let 
the water boil away and add the milk. When boiling, add 
the flour, rubbed to a thin paste with a little cold milk. Boil 
eight or ten minutes. Season with salt and strain before 
serving. 

Recipe, No. 196. Oatmeal Gruel 

Pound one half cup of coarse oatmeal till it is mealy. 
Put it in a tumbler with cold water. Stir well, let it settle, 
then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. Fill again 
and pour off the water, and again repeat this, being careful 
each time not to disturb the sediment in the bottom of the 
tumbler. Then boil the water twenty minutes, stirring often. 
Add one half teaspoon salt. If too thick add a little cream 
or milk. Strain, and serve hot. 

Recipe, No. 197. To Prepare an Orange for an Invalid 

Pare (not peel) around the orange, cutting in deep enough 
to cut off the inner, white membrane. Cut near the mem- 
brane of one of the sections straight in to the core ; cut in 
again on the opposite edge. Slip the knife under and scoop 
out the pulp, but leave the membrane on the core. Lay the 
membrane back under the left thumb, and cut in the same 



280 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

way into the next section. When all the pulp is removed the 
membrane should be left on the core. The pulp and juice 
are more delicious when taken out in this way than when 
squeezed out. Remove all the seeds, sweeten to taste, and 
serve with chipped ice, if desired. 

Recipe, No. 198. To Chip Ice 

With a thimble on your finger press a large needle into a 
piece of ice, and chip it off into bits as large as a pea. Mix 
it with an equal quantity of acid jelly or fruit juice. 

Recipe, No. 199. Apple Water 

1 apple. 1 c. boiling water. 

2 tbsp. sugar. 1 strip lemon peel. 

Wipe a large, sour apple, and cut it, without paring, into 
thin slices. Put them into a bowl with the lemon peel and 
boiling water; cover it, and let it stand until cold. Add 
the sugar, and when dissolved strain it. 

Recipe, No. 200. Rhubarb Water 

1 small stalk rhubarb. 1 strip lemon peel. 

1 c. boiling water. 2 tbsp. sugar. 

Wipe the rhubarb, cut into pieces an inch long. Add 
lemon peel and boiling water. Let it stand until cold. Add 
sugar, and when dissolved strain it. 

Recipe, No. 201. Irish Moss Jelly 

J c. Irish moss. 1 lemon or orange. 

4 figs. J c. sugar. 

1 pt. boiling water. 

Soak, pick over, and wash the moss. Put it into the boil- 
ing water, add the figs, and the thin rind of the lemon. 
Simmer until the moss is dissolved. Add the lemon juice 
and sugar, and strain into a cold, wet mould. 



LESSON XXVIII 

FOOD FOR INVALIDS, — Continued 

When there is a lack of nutrition from any cause, or 
after any long-continued or prostrating disease, the sys- 
tem demands immediate nourishment. Food that con- 
tains the most nutriment in the most easily assimilated form 
is now needed. 

Milk, to be taken slowly, — sipped by the spoonful, — 
is given in many cases. Egg-nog, meat broth, farina and 
oatmeal gruel, beef juice, and beef tea are suitable at such 
times. 

After the crisis of a disease is past, the system needs 
gradual but complete nutrition. The appetite is clamor- 
ous, fickle, or perhaps altogether wanting. Much de- 
pends upon judicious diet, and care must be taken against 
over-feeding. Broiled game, chicken, chops, and steak 
are the most easily assimilated meats. Eggs, cream toast, 
baked potatoes, ice cream, blanc mange, simple puddings, 
and stewed fruits may be used. 

Recipe, No. 202. Hot Eggs for Invalids 

Place a small bowl, suitable for serving, in a pan of water 
just below the boiling point ; put in one teaspoon butter and 
let it run over the bottom and sides ; break in one or two eggs, 
add a bit of salt, and pepper if liked, and stir with a spoon 
till egg is mingled and tastes hot ; serve at once with toast 
or wafers. This is more acceptable to an invalid than is a 
cold raw egg, or a soft egg with the white, stringy and half 
cooked. 

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282 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 203. Beef Juice 

Broil half a pound of lean, juicy round steak, cut one inch 
thick, until each side is just seared and the juice will flow 
when cut. Divide into small pieces and press in a lemon 
squeezer (or a meat press if you have one). Put the juice 
into a hot cup and stand it in hot water; stir till the 
liquid is hot, but do not let it boil or cook enough to curdle. 
Salt slightly and serve immediately. If you have the cup in 
hot water and work quickly, there will be no need of reheating 
juice. 

Recipe, No. 204. Blanc Mange 

Soak one fourth cup Irish moss in cold water until soft ; pick 
over, wash, tie in a thin lace bag, and put it into the double 
boiler with one pint milk ; boil until it thickens when dropped 
on a cold plate. Add one fourth teaspoon salt, strain, and 
add one half teaspoon vanilla flavoring. Turn into a mould 
that has been wet with cold water. 

Questions on Invalid Cookery 

What do invalids need besides Is it ever well for us to do with- 
daintily prepared food ? out food for a day or two ? 

What objectionable things are What kinds of food are suit- 
sometimes left in a sick- able in the beginning of sick- 
room ? ness ? 

What can you think of that What foods are suitable when 
would give comfort to an the system demands imme- 
invalid? diate nourishment? 

What would cause them dis- What are the most easily 
comfort ? assimilated foods ? 



LESSON XXIX 
EARLY VEGETABLES 

Recipe, No. 205. Asparagus 

Select thick, short stalks, tips not opened ; wash, break off 
lower end where it will snap easily, scrape off bracts and 
tough fibre on end. Wash again and tie in bundles. Use a 
deep narrow stew pan so that the stalks may stand upright, 
or lay them in a broad low pan. Nearly cover with boiling 
water, cover the pan and boil steadily twenty minutes or 
until tender. Pour out the water, salt it slightly and moisten 
the crust of toast in it ; spread with butter ; lay a few stalks 
on each slice, and add more bits of butter and salt. Serve 
hot as a course for dinner, or as the chief dish for luncheon or 
supper. 

Celery, trim, scrape, and cut stalks in three-inch lengths. 

Leeks, trim off rootlets and green tops, and divide if long. 

Cucumbers, pare and quarter lengthwise. 

Follow directions for asparagus for cooking, seasoning, and 
serving. 

Recipe, No. 206. Greens, Spinach 

Select fresh juicy leaves ; if only slightly wilted soaking 
may revive them, but if bruised and decayed reject them. 

Pick over, trim, rub well in cold water, lift out into another 
pan, and repeat this in five waters or until no sediment ap- 
pears. This is an important part of the process. Drain 
and put into a kettle with the water that drips from them ; 
cook slowly at first, until the juice is drawn out, then quickly 
until tender. Use more water with dandelion greens if you 
dislike the strong flavor, and drain it off when done. When 

283 



284 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

cold it IS a wholesome drink to those who like the bitter 
flavor. 

After draining, chop the greens to be sure the long fibres 
are cut ; season with butter and salt, and serve with lemon or 
vinegar. 

Recipe, No. 207. Green Peas and Shell Beans 

Select smooth, green pea pods that squeak in handling and 
are not filled out tight ; bean pods fresh or bright color, well 
filled but not beginning to open; unless fresh picked wash 
before shelling. Discard or lay aside for soup any white 
pea pods. Shell, pick over, rinse quickly and put into un- 
salted boiling water nearly to cover; let it boil down 
before serving. Cook small young peas about twenty 
minutes ; large mealy peas one hour. 

Shell beans are better if after boiling five minutes you add 
one fourth teaspoon soda ; stir well ; then turn into a col- 
ander; rinse and put again into boiling water and cook 
till quite soft, adding water as needed to prevent burning, 
and have enough to moisten when done. 

Do not use white sauce or milk with peas or beans. Mash 
a small portion of the vegetable in the pan, add two table- 
spoons butter, two tablespoons cream if you have it, one 
half teaspoon salt and one fourth teaspoon pepper and 
one half teaspoon sugar ; stir well and heat again just before 
serving. 

Recipe, No. 208. Sweet Corn 

This is one of our most delicious and valuable summer 
vegetables. Corn is ripe when the silk turns brown but tastes 
differ as to how large it should be when picked. If too young 
it is mostly water, and if too old the hulls are tough and the 
juice is gluey rather than milky. Remove the husk and every 
bit of the silk. Cook in boiling water unsalted ; it is not the 
cob but simply the grains on the cob that are to be cooked. 
From five to eight minutes is sufficient to set the milk and 
longer cooking does not improve it. Pierce a kernel with a 
fork and if the juice does not flow it is done. Remove at 



EARLY VEGETABLES 285 

once and cover with a napkin. If eaten from the cob, run 
the tine of a silver fork through the middle of each row with 
a sort of prying motion clear to the end of the row. This 
breaks each kernel and when spread with butter and salt the 
seasoning penetrates at once through the entire kernel and 
when eaten most of the hull is left on the cob. If preferred, 
shave and scrape off the pulp and season with salt, pepper, 
butter and reheat in a little milk or cream. Add a bit of 
sugar if the corn lacks sweetness. 



Recipe, No. 209. Stuffed Vegetables 

Sweet Green Peppers. Cut off stem end, leaving a cup, or 
divide lengthwise making a shallow oval ; remove the white 
fibre and seeds. For six cases allow one half cup of any 
kind of cold cooked meat or fish, finely chopped ; make it go 
further by adding one half cup of fine soft bread crumbs, or 
rice, or any cold cooked cereal, or mashed peas, or beans ; 
moisten with stock or any portions of left over gravy, or hot 
water, or white or tomato sauce. Season with minced 
onion, parsley, celery, or a bit of sweet herbs and salt and 
pepper. Fill the cases ; cover with buttered cracker crumbs ; 
place them in a shallow pan ; add water or stock to cover the 
pan half an inch, and bake about twenty minutes. 



Recipe, No. 210. Tomatoes 

Cook tomatoes in the same way. Slice off the top ; scoop 
out the seeds and some of the pulp, and use it to moisten the 
filling. 

Recipe, No. 211. Egg Plant 

Trim off the stem, wash, cut through the middle, and cook 
fifteen minutes ; scoop out the inside leaving a thick layer 
round the skin. Mix the inside with the filling, as for peppers ; 
cover with crumbs, and bake twenty minutes. 



286 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

Recipe, No. 212. Other Methods of Preparing Vege- 
tables 

After boiling until done, onions, cabbage, cauliflower and 
potatoes may be combined with white sauce or tomato sauce 
and cheese, covered with buttered cracker crumbs and baked 
until the crumbs are brown. 

Recipe, No. 213. Fruit Conserves 

Take five pounds of green grapes, three pounds of 
seeded raisins, the peel of five large oranges and three 
pounds of sugar. Cut the grapes, which should be really 
green or else the skins will be objectionable, in halves ; re- 
move the seeds ; then put orange peel, grapes, and raisins 
through a meat chopper, and grind fine ; add the sugar and 
orange juice and cook slowly about an hour. Turn into 
glasses and seal with paraffin. In spring use rhubarb cut 
in half -inch pieces, and in summer use ripe currants or goose- 
berries in place of green grapes. Currants should be heated, 
mashed, and sifted to remove the seeds. 



LESSON XXX 
ADDITIONAL RECIPES 

Recipe, No. 214. Milk Sherbet 

With Peach or Strawberry, Mix one half cup of lemon juice, 
one cup of fruit juice and two cups of sugar ; add gradually 
one quart of cold milk and when dissolved freeze as usual. 

Recipe, No. 215. Strawberry Ice Cream 

Mash one quart of fresh clean berries, add one cup of sugar 
and when dissolved squeeze out the juice through cheese- 
cloth. Dilute with one pint of thin cream, or cooked soft 
custard, add sugar if needed and freeze as usual. 

Recipe, No. 216. Vanilla Ice Cream 

Dissolve one cup of sugar in one quart of thin scalded 
cream. Cool, add a bit of salt and one teaspoon of vanilla 
extract, or enough to flavor to taste. Strain and freeze as 
usual. 

Recipe, No. 217. Hot Chocolate Sauce 

For Ice Cream. Melt two squares of chocolate over hot 
water and blend with it one teaspoon of arrowroot and one 
half cup of milk. Stir it into one cup of water and one half 
cup of sugar which have boiled five minutes, add a few grains 
of salt, one teaspoon of vanilla (and one fourth teaspoon of 
cinnamon if liked) and boil it five minutes. Keep it hot over 
boiling water till served. Pour a little over each portion of 
cream. 

287 



288 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 



Recipe, No. 218. Berry Charlotte 

Use blueberries, raspberries, or blackberries. Stew one 
quart of berries in one cup of water for ten minutes. Mash 
well and turn into a coarse cheesecloth strainer, laid over a 
granite pan. Twist the corners together and squeeze out the 
juice. Add sugar to taste, and boil again until it almost 
jellies on the edge. Put a layer of thin, soft white bread, 
broken into half -inch bits, in a bowl or in cups ; pour on hot 
syrup to wet the bread all through, and continue until all 
the syrup is used. Press each layer with a spoon until you 
cannot see any white portions. Serve very cold, with thin 
cream. 

Recipe, No. 219. How to Prepare Salads 

A portion of uncooked fruit or vegetable having tender 
fibre should be eaten daily on account of the valuable mineral 
salts, which are often wasted in cooking. Lettuce, celery, 
cucumbers, radishes, olives, onions, cabbage, watercress, 
parsley, and fruits that are not too tart and watery, may be 
used as salads. Vegetables should be washed with care in 
several waters, dried thoroughly, and kept on ice until ready 
for serving. 

Salads may be eaten with salt alone, or with a plain 
dressing of salt, vinegar or lemon juice and pepper if 
desired. Dress the salad at the table, for it wilts quickly 
if allowed to stand. 

When oil is used pour that on after the salt and pepper, 
then toss the leaves about till all are well oiled. If they are 
wet first with the vinegar the oil will not adhere. 

Onion juice, or minced chives, improve potato and let- 
tuce salads. Boiled Cream Dressing. Mix two teaspoons 
each of mustard and salt, one fourth teaspoon of paprika, 
three tablespoons of sugar, two tablespoons of melted butter 
and one cup of rich cream. Add four eggs well beaten and 
one half cup of hot vinegar. Cook in double boiler like 
soft custard, stirring constantly. This blends well in 
tomato and celery salads. 



ADDITIONAL EECIPES 289 

Recipe, No. 220. Cabbage or Cold Slaw with 
Boiled Dressing 

1 c. shaved cabbage. 1 egg. 

1 tsp. salt. i c. milk. 

J tsp. mustard. 1 tbsp. butter, 

spk. cayenne. i c. vinegar. 
1 tbsp. sugar. 

Trim off the decayed leaves, cut into quarters, soak awhile 
in cold water, drain, cut off the hard stalk, then slice or shave 
it off in thin strips. Mix the salt, mustard, cayenne, and 
sugar, add the beaten eggy the milk, butter, and vinegar. 
Cook it in a small saucepan over the fire, or in a double 
boiler, stirring constantly until it thickens like a custard. 
Pour it while hot over the cabbage and set away to cool. 

Recipe, No. 221. Mayonnaise Dressing 

Put one teaspoon each of mustard, salt and powdered sugar, 
one eighth teaspoon paprika, and two raw egg yolks in a 
sauce pan placed in a large pan of ice water. Stir with 
wooden spoon till egg is thick and will stay on the left side 
of the pan. Tilt the pan, pour in one tablespoon olive oil 
which will run down to the lower side, where it may be stirred 
in gradually. Add oil in larger quantities as you proceed, 
and stir each portion in thoroughly before adding more. 
When thick add one teaspoon lemon juice. Use in all one 
pint of oil and two tablespoons each of lemon juice and 
vinegar. Omit mustard when fruit is used. 

Recipe, No. 222. Banana Salad 

Select bananas that are ripe and firm without any tendency 
to break. Remove the skin and inner membranes and cut 
in halves lengthwise and crosswise. Dip each piece into 
mayonnaise dressing until well-coated and drained. If you 
like, sprinkle them with fine chopped nuts. Arrange a por- 
tion of shredded lettuce on individual plates, pile the strips 
of banana cob-house fashion on the lettuce, and fill the space 
with peeled and seeded Malaga grapes, or small pieces of grape- 
fruit pulp, or with ripe currants. Moisten the fruit with the 



290 SCHOOL KITCHEN TEXTBOOK 

dressing. Put one or two of the tiny yellow lettuce leaves in 
the center of the cob-house and serve very cold. 

Recipe, No. 223. Stewed Dried Fruit 

Select large plump fruit, not the highest priced, nor such as 
are very acid. Use prunes, peaches, apricots, or prunellas. 

Wash the fruit in lukewarm water ; let it soak half an hour 
and then rub each piece thoroughly until clean and free from 
grit ; rinse and lay them in a large bowl of fresh cold water. 
Change frequently the water in which you are washing them. 
Let them soak all night and longer if needed, until they are 
well filled out and the surface smooth. 

Turn them into an enamelled stewpan with the water and if 
needed add more to cover them. Set them over moderate 
heat and let them simmer closely covered until tender and 
the juice is boiled down quite thick. 

This will develop a rich flavor and some fruits will require 
no sugar, in fact a little lemon will improve them. Let 
them cook a few minutes after adding sugar and, if you wish 
the syrup clear, skim out the fruit and strain the juice before 
turning it over the fruit. 

Recipe, No. 224. Prune Whip 

Wash, rub, rinse, and soak one fourth pound of prunes. 
When plump, simmer until very soft. Remove the stones 
and rub pulp through a strainer. Add sugar if tart and lemon 
juice if very sweet, and cook five minutes. 

When cool add the well beaten whites of four eggs ; turn 
the mixture into a buttered melon mold or into small individ- 
ual molds, stand them in pan of hot water and bake slowly 
about twenty minutes, or until the whip is firm. Serve 
very cold with a soft custard made with the egg yolks ; or 
with whipped cream if preferred. 

Recipe, No. 225. Picked-up Codfish 

Put enough salt codfish to fill a cup into a pan of cool 
water, and as it soaks tear it into strips and then into small 



ADDITIONAL RECIPES 291 

pieces, keeping it in the water until all is stripped. Let it 
stand an hour, and if very salt turn off the first water after 
it is shredded. Heat the fish in the water slowly, but do 
not let it boil. Scald one cup of milk and stir it gradually 
into two tablespoons of butter and flour heated in a sauce- 
pan. When thick and smooth add the drained fish and keep 
it hot over boiling water until everything else is ready; 
then beat one egg slightly and stir it into the fish and as soon 
as the egg has the cooked look, serve it in a shallow dish. 
With perfectly baked potatoes, hot and mealy, this is a 
meal which you will enjoy, and which can be repeated often 
without tiring of it. 



APPENDIX 



SEASONABLE, WELL BALANCED MEALS FOR THE 

FAMILY TABLE 

Autumn. 

Breakfast: Peaches or Grapes, Granulated Wheat, 

Coffee, Hash, Corn Cake, Milk. 
Dinner: Chicken Fricassee with Short Cake, Sweet 

Potatoes, Celery, Shell Beans, Apple Pie, Candy or 

Block Sugar. 
Luncheon or Supper: Celery Soup, Scalloped Oysters, 

or Sweet Corn, Cream of Rice Pudding, Rolls, 

Cocoa or Milk for Children. 
Winter. 

Breakfast: Orange, Rolled Oats, Coffee, Milk, Baked 

Potatoes, Picked-up Codfish, Rye Muffins. 
Dinner: Beef Stew with Dumplings, Stuffed Green 

Peppers or Squash, Apple Tapioca Pudding, Nuts. 
Luncheon or Supper : Split Pea Soup, Brown-bread 

Wafers, Cocoa or Milk, Baked Bananas, Hermits. 
Spring. 
Breakfast: Grape Fruit, or Stewed Prunes. Coffee, 

Omelet with Dried Beef or Bacon, Toast. 
Dinner: Baked Fish, Mashed Potatoes, Creamed 

Onions, Stewed Tomatoes or Tomato Jelly Salad, 

Fruit Ice Cream, Sponge Cake. 
Luncheon or Supper: Cold Pot Roast of Veal, Bread, 

Asparagus or Greens, Fruit Shortcake. 
Summer. 

Breakfast: Melon, Flaked Cereal, Coffee, Milk, Eggs 

Scrambled or Soft Cooked, Berry Muffins. 

293 



294 APPENDIX 

Dinner : Fish Chowder, Peas, Bread, Lettuce and 
Tomato Salad, Berry Charlotte. 

Luncheon or Supper: Scalloped Lamb, Peas, Biscuit, 
Gingerbread, Cocoa or Milk. 

Milk is not mentioned in every menu, but it may form 
a part of every meal for children, either plain, as a food 
not a beverage, or in cocoa shells, or custards and other 
simple puddings. 

Tea also is not included, for except at supper for those 
who have been accustomed to it with their meals, it is 
seldom served at the table, since we have learned that it 
is better taken by itself, or with the bread and butter 
served at afternoon teas. 



B 

HOME-SEWING 

THIRTY-TWO LESSONS 

Explanation : This work is to be done in the home and 
brought to school and shown to the teacher in class, for 
comparison and credits. One lesson per week will be all that 
can reasonably be expected of pupils. It is desired that all 
this work be real, necessary home tasks, but if there is no 
darning, patching, mending, button-hole making required 
in the home at the time such lesson is assigned, then the 
contents of the scrap-bag may be used ; later, as such work is 
needed in the home, the various lessons may be repeated in 
doing real home work, and credits may thus be increased. 

At the close of every month, each girl shall bring a state- 
ment from parent or guardian, certifying that only her own 
work has been presented. This certificate shall be similar 
to the one for home-cooking. 

Lesson I. 1. Make a straight seam not less than eighteen 

inches long, using any plain goods. 2. The same, using the 

over-stitch. The straight seam on machine. 

Note : All pupils that have access to a machine should be 

required to repeat the hand-work on the machine when 

possible, and present both. 

Lesson II. 1. Make a hem, one fourth inch by eighteen 
inches, on any thin goods, like muslin. 2. Repeat on machine. 
3. Repeat on hea\der goods, both by hand and wdth machine. 

Lesson III. Hem a napkin, handkerchief, or towel : 
(1) by hand, (2) by machine. 

Lesson IV. Repeat first part of Lesson II, and ruffle one 
edge. Sew on to ruffle a straight piece of the same goods. 
Sew over the seam a piece of the same goods, cut bias, turning 
edges under. Hand or machine work. 

295 



296 APPENDIX 

Lesson V. Repeat Lesson IV, using heavier goods. 
(For example, serge.) 

Lesson VL Take a piece of thin goods, five inches by 
eighteen inches or more ; lay a hem one and one half inches 
wide on one edge. Run two one-fourth-inch tucks above the 
hem. Make a ruffle of this finished piece and set it on a 
straight piece of the same goods, covering the seam in the 
same way indicated in Lesson IV. (The placing of tucks is 
left to the judgment of the pupil.) 

Lesson VII. Take the product of Lesson VI ; slightly 
gather the edge of the straight piece, and sew a one-inch belt 
on it. 

Lesson VIII. Sew a two-inch bias-cut facing along the edge 
of a straight piece of goods. Make it not less than eighteen 
inches long. 

Lesson IX. Take two pieces of thin goods, each four inches 
by six inches ; lay a hem one inch on one edge of each ; make 
five button-holes in one piece, spaced one inch apart and one 
inch from each end. Sew buttons on the other piece, match- 
ing button-holes and buttons, and matching spaces. 

Lesson X. Repeat Lesson IX, using heavy goods, and four 
trousers' buttons. Make hem two inches wide. Place the 
buttons one and one half inches apart, and equi-distant 
from each end. Sew the buttons on the goods by wrap- 
ping thread around under them. This is sometimes best 
accomplished by sewing over a large pin placed on top of 
the button. 

Lesson XL Repeat Lesson IX, using hooks, and eyes in- 
stead of buttons. Discuss darning. 

Lesson XII. Bring to class samples of darned socks ; 
heavy crash goods, darned. (Pupils' own work.) Discuss 
patching. 

Lesson XIII. Bring to class samples of patching thin 
goods ; heavy goods. 

Lesson XIV. Bring from home samples of any kind of 
coarse needle work. Discuss in class. 

Lesson XV. Bring to class samples of fine needle work. 
Discuss in class. 

Lesson XVI. Make an apron with a pocket in it. 



APPENDIX 297 

Lesson XVII. Make a dust-cap. 

Lesson XVIII. Make two hot-iron holders. 

Lesson XIX. Hemstitch a towel. 

Lesson XX. Embroider an initial on a towel or napkin. 

Lesson XXI. Make a sewing-apron. 

Lesson XXII. Hemstitch a small handkerchief and whip 
lace around the edge. 

Lesson XXIII. Repeat lessons on darning and patching. 

Lesson XXIV. Patch with mending tissue a small tri- 
angular tear in thin suiting. (Place tissue between the patch 
and the tear, and press with a medium hot iron.) 

Lesson XXV. Make a gingham bonnet. 

Lesson XXVI. Work selected by the class for all to do. 

Lesson XXVII. Bring samples of crocheting to class, and 
explain them. 

Lesson XXVIII. Bring to class samples of mending other 
than what has already been submitted. 

Lesson XXIX. Have every pupil bring to class work 
suggested by her mother. 

Lesson XXX. Repeat Lesson XXIX. 

Lesson XXXI and XXXII. Have every pupil make a 
plain waist for herself. 



EEFERENCES 

Food and Dietetics. Robert Hutchison, M.D. 

Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. H. C. Sherman. 

Principles of Human Nutrition. W. H. Jordan. 

Human Mechanism. Hough and Sedgwick. 

Human Foods. Harry Snyder. 

Pui'e Foods. J. C. Olsen. 

Foods and Household Management. Kinne and Cooley. 

Food Products of the World. Dr. Mary Green. 

Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Richards and Elliot. 

Bacteria, Yeast and Molds. H. W. Conn. 

Dust and its Dangers. T. M. Prudden. 

Fuels of the Household. Marian White. 

Handbook of Health. Woods Hutchinson, M.D. 

The Spirit of Cookery. Thudichum. 

Laundry Manual. Balderston and Limerick. 

Bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

farmers' bulletins 

To secure these valuable aids to the study of foods, address the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, AVashington, D.C., and enclose 
a request for the pamphlets desired, with your name and address 
at the head of the list. 

The following will be interesting and helpful. Order by num- 
ber and name of subject. 

No. 121 Beans, Peas and Legumes. M. H. Abel. 

112 Bread. 

383 Bread Making. H. W. Atwater. 

67 Butter ]\Iaking on the Farm. 

203 Canning. Preserving. Jellies. M. Parloa. 

359 Canning Vegetables. 

375 Care of Food. 

249 Cereal Breakfast Foods. Woods and Snyder. 

487 Cheese. Langw^orthy and Hunt. 

299 



300 REFERENCES 

'No. 298 Corn and Corn Products. Langworthy. 

565 Corn Meal. Langworthy. 

559 Corn and Cowpeas. Langworthy. 

128 Eggs. Langworthy. 

85 Fish as Food. Langworthy. 

293 Fruit. 

607 Farm Kitchen as a Workshop. Anna Barrows. 

175 Grape Juice. 

391 Meat, Economical Use of. Langworthy and Hunt. 

34 Meat. C. D. Woods. 

526 Mutton. Langworthy and Hunt. 

363 Milk. Milner. 

332 Nuts. M. E. Jaffa. 

142 Nutrition. W. O. Atwater. 

95 Peanuts. 

295 Potatoes. 

129 Sweet Potatoes. 

182 Poultry as Food. H. W. Atwater. 

110 Rice. 

93 Sugar as Food. M. H. Abel. 

256 Vegetables for Table. M. Parloa. 



EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETINS 

Potatoes as Food. Langworthy. 
Raisins, Figs and Dried Fruit. Langworthy. 
Green Vegetables. Langworthy. 
Vegetable Foods. Anna Barrows. 

Food Charts prepared by Dr. C. F. Langworthy, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., mounted in sets for hanging 
in the schoolroom, are helpful in studying the composition of foods. 
Price one dollar. 

Register of Foods, prepared by Dr. P. W. Goldsbury, printed 
in five colors on heavy cardboard, with brief description. Size 
13^ X 19 inches. The colors show the correct proportion of the 
elementary principles of more than one hundred foods. 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX 



Abbreviations, 82 
Acid, 170, 220 

Acetic, 242 

Fruit, 103 

Lactic, 120, 243 

Tartaric, 162, 243 
Air, 1-4, 40, 68, 236 
Alburain, 237 

in Eggs, 133 

in Meat, 156, 196, 205 

in Milk, 119, 120 
Alcohol, 57, 58 
Alkali, carbonate of, 162 
Almonds, 96 

Altitude, Effect on Cooking, 
Apple Jelly, 106 
Apple Sauce, 169 
Apple Water, 280 
Apples, Baked, 138, 169 

Composition of, 87 

Sliced, 95 

Steamed, 139 

Sweet, 170 

To Serve, 85 
Arrowroot, 130 
Ashes, 41, 46 
Asparagus, 283 

Bacon, 144, 167 
Baked Heart, 217 
Baking, 109 

Heat for, 258, 259 

Time-Table for, 210, 261 
Baking Powder, 162, 244 
Banana, 88 

And Lemon Jelly, 118 

Baked, 170, 194 

To Serve, 85 
Banana Salad, 289 



109 



Barley, 140 

Pearl, 140 
Bathroom, Care of, 16, 17 
Batters, 162, 236, 246 

Drop, 242, 251 

Pour, 236 

Thick, 242 
Beans, 184, 284 

Baked, 185 

Dried, 184 

SheU, 284 

Soup, 180 

String, 177 
Beating, 237, 238 
Bedroom, Care of, 11-16 
Beef, Diagram, 224-226 

Juice, 282 

Pot Roast, 217 

Smothered, 218 

Steak, 198 

Stew, 222 

Stewed Ribs of, 117 

Tea, 157 
Berries, To Serve, 85 
Berry Charlotte, 288 
Berry Pie, 211 
Biscuit, 193 
Blackberries, 103, 194 
Blanc Mange, 282 
BoHed Dinner, 203 
Boiler, Double, 136 
Boiling, 109 

Meat, 202, 204 

Water, 113 
Bonny Clabber, 124 
Bottles, To Seal, 107 
Braising, 109, 161, 221 
Bread, 255-257, 260 

Brown, 164 



301 



302 



INDEX 



Bread, Graham, 260 

Milk, 260 
Breakfast Foods, 140 
Breakfast, To Prepare, 167 
Broiled Fish, 200 

Meat Cakes, 198 

Steak, 198 
BroHing, 108, 196, 197 

Pan, 199 

Time-Table for, 200 

with Gas, 197 
Brussels Sprouts, 176 
Buckwheat Cakes, 239 
Butter, 123 
Butter Balls, 123 

Cabbage, 176 

Red, 176 

Salad, 289 
Cake, 271-274 

Corn, 245 

Dutch Apple, 246 

Frosting, 274 

Plain, 272, 273 

Short, 193 

Sponge, 272, 273 
Cakes, Griddle, 238 
Calcium, 87 
Candy, 96, 191 

Fruit Paste, 191 

Panocha, 191 
Canning, 99-103 
Caramel, 190 

Custard, 190 
Carbon, 1-4, 35-41 

dioxide, 1-4, 37, 40, 163, 242, 
257 

monoxide, 40 
Carrots, 176 
Casserole, 109, 216 

Chicken en, 218 

Rabbits en, 161 

Squirrel en, 161 > 

Cauliflower, 176 
Celery, 94, 283, 289 

Stewed, 283 
Cellulose, 87, 91, 173, 184 
Cereals, 139-140 
Chafing Dish, 57 
Charcoal, 36 
Charlotte, Berry, 288 
Cheese, 88, 125, 183 

Cottage, 124 



Cheese, Dutch, 124 

Sour Milk, 124 
Cherries, 85 
Chestnuts, 180 
Chicken, 158-160 

en Casserole, 218 

Fricassee, 160, 194 

Roast, 160 

Smothered, 218 

To Prepare, 158, 159 
Chocolate, 87, 107 

Afternoon Tea, 187 

Hot Sauce, 287 

Reception, 187 
Chops, 199 
Chowder, 149 

Clam, 149 

Fish, 221, 267 

Oyster, 149 
Clam Chowder, 149 
Clams, Creamed, 150 

Steamed, 150 
Cleaning, 18-20 

Cloths, 21 

Floors, 19 

Glass, 19 

Metals, 24-27 

Paint, 18 

Woodenware, 21 
Cleanliness, 4 
Coal, 36, 37 
Cocoa, 117 

Shells, 117 
Coddling, 109 
Coffee, 116 
Coke, 37 

Combinations of Food, 87-94 
Conserves, Fruit, 286 
Cooker, Fireless, 51-53, 109 
Cookies, 248 
Cooking, 108 

Methods, 108 

Preparation for, 77 

Reasons for, 108, 109 

Temperatures, 110 
Corn, 188-190 

Cake, 245 

Fritters, 145 

Hulled, 140, 189 

Meal, 188, 189 

Oysters, 145 

Pop, 189 

Soup, 181 



INDEX 



303 



Corn, Sweet, 284 
Corn Starch, 126 
Cottage or Meat Pie, 207 
Crackers, 149, 181, 255 

Browned, 181 

Composition of, 255 

Crumbs, 149 
Cranberries, 69, 161 
Cream, 119, 123 

To Whip, 123 
Cream of Tartar, 162, 194, 243 
Crisps, 249 
Croiltons, 180 
Cucumbers, 283 
Curds, 124 
Currants, 85 

Dried, 165 
Custard, 135, 190, 270 

Caramel, 190 

Cup, 135 

Mocha, 270 

Rennet, 121 

Soft, 134 

Soft, Yolks only, 135 

Dandelion Greens, 283 

Dates, 96, 191 

Diagram of Beef, 224-226 

Diastase, 256 

Dish Washing, 21-24 

Division, 79 

Double BoHer, 136 

Dough, 162 

Bread, 257, 260 

Dropped, 242-246 

Fried, 250 

Rolled, 248 
Doughnuts, 251, 253 
Drawn Butter Sauce, 266 
Dress for Housework, 4, 7 
Dripping, 144 
Dumplings, 221, 222 
Dust, 3, 7-10 
Dusting, 7-10 

Egg Nog, 96 
Egg Plant, 285 
Eggs, 133, 268 

Composition of, 133, 268 

Cooked Hard, 134 

Cooked Soft, 134 

Hot, 281 

Poached, 134 



Eggs, Preserving, 269 

Vermicelli, 270 
Electricity, 58 
Equipment for School Kitchen, 72-75 

Fat, 144 

Clarified, 144 
Fats, 86-92, 143 

Object of, 143 

Source of, 143 
Fermentation, 256 
Fire, 39-41 

Coal, 45-48 

Wood, 49-50 
Fireless Cooker, 51-53, 109 
Fish, 263-267 

Baked, 264 

Boiled, 266 

Broiled, 200 

Chowder, 267 

Cod, 277, 291 

Composition of, 263 

Fried, 146 

Salt, 277, 291 

Sauted, 146 

Scalloped, 208 

SheU, 147-149 

Stuffing, 265 
Fish-balls, 277 
Floors, 19 
Flour, 139 

Graham, 139 
Food, 83 

Care of, 68-71 

Classification of, 83, 86 

Combinations, 87-93 

Composition of, 86 

Importance of, 83 

Natural, 1, 95 

Prepared, 84 

Proportion of, 90-93 

Stuffs, 86-92 

Waste of, 79 
Fricassee, Chicken, 160, 194 

Lobster, 276 

Veal, 222 
Fricasseeing, 109, 221 
Fritters, 145, 252 

Corn, 145 
Frosting, 274 
Fruit, 99-107 

Canned, 103 

Canning, 99-103 



304 



INDEX 



Fruit, Composition of, 104 

Conserves, 286 

Dried, 290 

Fresh, 85 

Ice Cream, 98 

Nut Paste, 191 

Preserved, 103 

Punch, 187 

Salad, 90 

Stewed, 290 

To Serve Fresh, 85 
Frying, 109, 250 
Fuels, 35-38 

Heating Power of, 38 

Game, 161, 227 
Garbage, 3, 29 
Gas, 39-44 

Broiling by, 197 

Range, 42 
Gelatine, 117, 232 
Gems, 240 
Germs, 3, 100 
Giblets, 159 
Gingerbread, 245 
Gluten, 136, 163, 189, 237, 256, 
Grain, 139 
Grape Fruit, 85 
Grape Juice, 107 
Grapes, to Serve, 85 
Gravy, 203, 207, 217 
Greens, 283 

Griddle, Cooking on, 237 
Griddle Cakes, 238 
Grilling, 108 
Groats, 140 
Gruel, Oatmeal, 279 

Ham, 144 

Hamburger Steak, 198 
Handwork, 77 
Haricot, 221 
Hash, 206 
Heart, Baked, 217 
Heat, 35 
Herbs, 233 
Hermits, 246 
Hominy, 140, 188 
House Cleaning, 18-20 
Hydrogen, 35-38 

Ice and Salt, 97 
Ice Cream, 97 



285 



Ice Cream, Fruit, 93, 98 
Strawberry, 287 
Vanilla, 287 

Infusion, 116 

Invalids, Care of, 278 
Food for, 278 

Apple Water, 280 
Beef Juice, 282 
Beef Tea, 157 
Blanc Mange, 282 
Hot Eggs, 281 
Irish Moss Jelly, 280 
Milk Porridge, 279 
Oatmeal Gruel, 279 
Orange to Serve, 279 
Rhubarb Water, 280 

Iron, 87 

Jelly, 104-106 
Apple, 106 
Irish Moss, 280 
Lemon, 118 
Orange, 117 
Plum, 106 
Sandwich, 88 

Kerosene, 18, 54 

Oil Stove, 54, 55 
Kindling, 39 
Kitchen Equipment, 73 

Supplies, 73 

Lamps, Care of, 55-57 
Leeks, 283 
Left Overs, 22, 205 
Legumes, 184-185 
Lemon Cups, 95 

Sauce, 130 

Whey, 120 
Lemonade, 89, 116 

Picnic, 92 

with Boiling Water, 116 
Lemons, 69 
Lettuce, 94, 288 
Lobster, 275-277 

Creamed, 276 

Fricasseed, 276 

To Prepare, 275 
Luncheons, Picnic, 87-89 

School, 87, 89 

Macaroni, 182 
Savory, 183 
Soup, 235 



INDEX 



305 



Matches, 39 
Mattresses, 12 
Mayonnaise Dressing, 289 
Meal, 140, 162, 188 

Corn, 189 
Measuring, 79 
Meat, 227-230 

Baked, 215, 218 

Boiled, 202, 204 

Broiled, 198 

Care of, 69 

Casserole, 216 

Composition of, 156, 227 

Cottage or Meat Pie, 207 

Minced, on Toast, 206 

Pot Roast, 217 

Roast, 215-217 

Scalloped, 208 

Smothered, 218 

Soup, 231, 234 

Stewed, 217 
Melons, To Serve, 85 
Menus, 293 
Metals, Cleaning, 24 
MHk, 69, 119-122 

Boiled, 120 

Composition of, 119 

Porridge, 279 

Products, 123-125 

Sherbet, 287 

Skim, 124 

Sour, 122, 243 

Thickened, 121 
Mineral Matter, 87-92, 119, 130, 

139, 151, 173, 184. 
Mixing, 237, 244 
Molasses, 242, 243 

Cookies, 248 
Muffins, 242 

Fried Rye, 251 

Rye, 245 
Mush, Oatmeal, 138 
Mutton, 203 

BoHed, 203 

Chops, 199 

Nitrogen, 1 
Nut Paste, 191 
Nuts, 88, 96 

Oatmeal, 138 
Gruel, 279 
Mush, 138 



Oats, Granulated, 140 

Rolled, 140 
Oils, 143 

on Stoves, 54, 55 
Olive Oil, 143 
Omelet, 269 
Onions, 176, 289 
Orange for Invalids, 279 
Oranges, To Serve, 85 
Oxygen, 1 
Oysters, 147-149, 194 

Chowder, 149 

Fried or Sauted, 148 

Raw, 147 

Roast, 148 

Scalloped, 149, 208 

Stewed, 148 

To Parboil, 148 

To Prepare, 148 

Pan Broiling, 109 
Pans, To Clean, 24, 27 

Cooking, 21 

Sauce, 75 

Stew, 75 
Pantry, 68 
Pastry, 210 
Peach Whip, 97 
Peaches, To Serve, 85 

Canned, 102 
Peanut Butter, 89 
Peanuts, 87 
Pears, 85 

Baked, 170 

Preserved, 103 

To Serve, 85 
Peas, Dried, 184 

Green, 284 

Split, 184 
Peppers, Sweet Green, 185 
Petroleum, 37 
Phosphorus, 39, 87 
Picking Up, 17 
Pies, 210-214 

Apple, 211 

Berry, 211 

Custard, 211 

Lemon, 213 

Meat, 207 

Mince, 213 

Rhubarb, 211 

Squash, 211 
Pineapples, To Serve, 85 



306 



INDEX 



Planking, 109 
Plum Jelly, 106 

To Serve, 85 
Popcorn, 87 
Popovers, 240 
Popping, 109 
Pork Products, 144 
Porridge, Milk, 279 
Potassium, 87 
Potatoes, 151-155 

Baked, 110 

Boiled, 154 

Cakes, 155 

Composition of, 151 

Creamed, 208 

Lyonnaise, 208 

Mashed, 155 

Parmesan, 110 

Riced, 155 

Soup, 179 

Sweet, 110 
Pot-pie, 221 
Pot Roasting, 109 
Poultry, 158-161, 227 

Composition of, 158 

To Prepare, 158 
Preserving, 103 
Protein, 86-92 

Fish, 263 

in Cereals, 137-139, 189 

in Eggs, 133 

Legumes, 184 

Meat, 156, 202, 220 

Milk, 120 

Vegetables, 173-175 
Prune Whip, 290 
Prunes, Stewed, 290 
Puddings, 

Apple Tapioca, 131 

Christmas, 164 

Cream Rice, 130 

Fruit Suet, 164 

Maize, 165 

Plain Suet, 163 
Punch, Fruit, 187 

Quinces, Preserved, 103 
Baked, 170 

Rabbit, Braised, 161 
Ragout, 221 
Raisins, 165, 191 
Raspberries, 85 



Refrigerator, 28, 68 
Rennet Custard, 121 
Rhubarb, Pie, 211 

Water, 280 
Rice, 129 

Boiled, 127 

Composition of, 129 

Cream Pudding, 130 

Snowballs of, 128 

To Wash, 127 
Roasting, 109 
Rye, 139, 140, 255 

Muffins, 245 
Fried, 251 

Sago, 131 
Salad, 96, 288 

Banana, 289 

Cabbage, 289 

Fruit, 96, 289 
Salad Dressings, 289 

Boiled, 289 

Boiled Cream, 288 

Mayonnaise, 289 

Plain or French, 288 
Salmi, 221 

Sal-soda Cleansing, 26 
Salt, 87, 97 
Samp, 140, 188 
Sandwiches, 

Beef, Scraped, 94 

Cheese and Jelly, 88 

Chicken, 93 

Peanut Butter, 89 

Sardine, 92 
Sauce, 

Brown, 207 

Creamy, 166 

Drawn Butter, 266 

Fruit Syrup, 164 

Hard, 166 

Hot Chocolate, 287 

Lemon, 128 

Tomato, 207 

White, 142, 178 
Sausages, 146 

Dried Beef with, 146 
Saut6ing, 109 
Scalloped Fish, 208 

Meat, 208 

Oysters, 149, 208 
Scour, How to, 26 
Selection. 77 



INDEX 



307 



Separation, 78 
Serving, 293-295 
Shells, 117 
Sherbet, 287 
Short Cake, 194 

Apple, 194 

Banana, 194 

Blackberry, 194 

Prune, 194 

Strawberry, 194 
Simmering, 109 
Sink, Care of, 29 

Furnishings, 72 
Slip, 121 
Smoke, 40 
Snowballs, 128 
Soda, Bicarbonate of, 162, 242 

Sal, 26 
Soot, 40 
Soups, 231-234 

Baked Bean, 180 

Chestnut, 180 

Corn, 181 

Macaroni, 235 

Pea, Split, 184 

Potato, 179 

Stock, 231-234 

Tomato Cream, 181 

Vegetable, 178-181, 235 
Spaghetti, 182 
Spinach, 283 
Squirrel, Braised, 161 
Stains, to Remove, 33 
Starch, 87-92, 126 

in Potatoes, 151 
Rice, 127-129 
Tapioca, 131 
Steam, 115-117, 168 
Steaming, 109, 136-138 

Dry, 136 

Moist, 137 
Sterilization, 100, 101 
Stew, Beef, 222 
Stewed Fruit, 290 
Stewing, 109, 220-223 
Stirring, 237 
Stoves, 45-49 

Alcohol, 57-58 

Coal, 45-48 

Gas, 42-44 

Oil, 55 

Wood, 49 
Strawberries, 85 



Strawberries, Canned, 194 

Ice Cream, 287 

Whip, 97 
Stuffing, 160 

Chicken, 160 

Fish, 265 
Suet, 143, 163 

Pudding, 163 
Fruit, 163 

to Chop, 165 
Sugar, 87, 92, 190 
Sulphur, 39, 87 
Sweeping, 7-10 

Table, Laying the, 59 

Manners, 65 

of Measures and Weights, 81-82 

Waiting on, 62 
Tables of Food Composition, 104, 
119, 129, 133, 139, 144, 147, 
151, 156, 158, 171, 255, 263, 
268 
Tapioca, 131 

Pudding, Apple, 131 
Tea, 116, 186 

Afternoon, 186 

Iced, 186 
Temperatures, 110 
Tissue, 228 
Toast, 141 

Dry, 142 

Milk, 142 

Water, 142 
Toasting, 109, 141 
Tomato Soup, 181 
Tomatoes, Canned, 102 

Stewed, 172 

Stuffed, 285 
Towels, 30 

Utensils, 72-75 
for Canning, 99 ^ 

Veal, Cutlets, 223 

Fricassee, 222 
Vegetables, 171-177, 283 

Baked, 286 

Canned, 101 

Composition of, 171 

Cooking, 175 

Eariy, 23 

Keeping, 8, 174 

Seasoning, 172, 175 



308 



INDEX 



Vegetables, Serving, 175 

Soups, 178-181 

Stuffed, 285 

Time Table, for cooking, 171 

To Select, 174 
Ventilation, 3 
Vermicelli, 182 

Wafers, 88, 89 
Walnuts, 96 

Wash Stands, Care of, 15 
Washing Clothes, 32-34 

Dishes, 21-27 
Water, 86, 112-117 

Apple, 280 

Boning, 115-117 



Water, Rhubarb, 280 

Wasting, 30 
Wax for Sealing Bottles, 107 
Weights and Measures, 81, 82 
Wheat, 255-257 

Cracked, 140 

Granulated, 140 

Whole, 140 
Whey, Lemon, 120 
Whip, Peach, 97 
Wood, 36-38 

Fire, 49 

Yeast, 253-257 



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